Sairecabur

Coordinates: 22°43′12″S 67°53′31″W / 22.72°S 67.892°W / -22.72; -67.892
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Sairecabur
Pre-Columbian[3]

Sairecabur (Spanish pronunciation:

Putana and Juriques
.

Sairecabur proper is accompanied by a 4.5 km (2.8 mi) wide caldera. Before the formation of this caldera the volcano may have been 7,000 m (23,000 ft) high and thus one of the highest volcanoes on Earth. After the formation of this caldera lava effusion occurred during the Pleistocene and Holocene; there is no reported historical activity, however. Eruption products on Escalante and Sairecabur include andesite and dacite. The climate is dry, cold and very sunny.

An Inca sanctuary has been found on Sairecabur, and sulfur mines exist in the mountain chain. More recently, the Receiver Lab Telescope was installed on the volcano. It is the highest submillimeter telescope in the world at an altitude of 5,525 m (18,127 ft).

Geology and geography

Geological context

West of

Southern Volcanic Zone. These belts have different underlying crusts and thus have different typical magma compositions. These volcanic zones are separated from each other by zones where there is no volcanism, associated with a shallow dip of the seismic zone of the subducting plate.[4]

Sairecabur is part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ).

extinct and only a few have documented activity.[7] The geologist Juan Brüggen in 1950 estimated that there were about 800 volcanoes in northern Chile, about 37 of them east of the Salar de Atacama. Also part of the volcanism are large ignimbrites, which are usually thought to be of Miocene age.[8] Those in the area of Sairecabur often originated in the neighbourhood to the conical volcanoes.[9] The volcanoes formed over crust with thicknesses reaching 70 km (43 mi), thus the erupted magmas are heavily influenced by the crust.[10] A number of the highest stratovolcanoes in the world are in the CVZ. Historical activity has been low in comparison to the volcanic zones of southern Chile and Colombia/Ecuador. In Chile, much of the area of the CVZ is desert and thus difficult to research.[11]

Sairecabur is constructed on the two

Purico Complex.[13] The basement beneath Sairecabur and Licancabur contains a large number of faults.[14]

Geography

Licancabur seen from Sairecabur

Sairecabur is located at a distance of 25 kilometres (16 mi) from San Pedro de Atacama.[15] The volcano saddles the frontier between Bolivia and Chile, where it lies in the Antofagasta Region.[12] Laguna Verde lake, Licancabur volcano and Portezuelo de Chaxas pass lie south of Sairecabur. East of the Sairecabur range lie Mount Nelly and Cerro Laguna Verde.[16]

The Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904) traced the frontier between Bolivia and Chile along the Sairecabur chain.[17] Disagreements between the topographic maps in the two countries mean that the naming of the mountains is often confusing. Escalante is also known as Apagado.[18]

The volcano is associated with a mountain range of the same name.[1] The Sairecabur range forms a drainage divide between the Salar de Atacama on the western side and a number of small endorheic basins in Bolivia on the eastern side. Licancabur and Juriques farther south and Tocorpuri farther north are part of the same divide.[19] Dry valleys on the eastern side of the Sairecabur range ultimately drain into Laguna Verde.[16] The Rio Purifica originates on Sairecabur's slope at an altitude of 3,950 metres (12,960 ft),[20] it later converges with the Rio Puritama to form the San Pedro de Atacama River.[21]

Geology

The Sairecabur range is a 22-kilometre (14 mi) long chain of

postglacial time. Two additional centres exist northeast of Escalante.[18]

5,971-metre (19,590 ft)[a][b] high Sairecabur is the highest volcano in the range. A 4.5-kilometre (2.8 mi) wide caldera exists south of Sairecabur and formed on an older volcano. Lava flows extend from Sairecabur as far as 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) to the northwest, and further young lava flows formed south of this caldera.[18] The 5,819-metre (19,091 ft) high[28] Escalante (22°37′00″S 67°33′00″W / 22.61667°S 67.55000°W / -22.61667; -67.55000[28]) has a crater lake.[18] Puritama volcano west of Sairecabur has generated 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) lava flows that extend along tectonic canyons.[29] 5,722-metre (18,773 ft) high Curiquinca (22°36′00″S 67°52′00″W / 22.60000°S 67.86667°W / -22.60000; -67.86667) and 5,748-metre (18,858 ft) high Cerro Colorado (22°35′00″S 67°55′00″W / 22.58333°S 67.91667°W / -22.58333; -67.91667) are found northwest and northeast, respectively, of the range.[1][28]

Caldera of Sairecabur

The caldera is bounded by cliffs reaching a height of 400 metres (1,300 ft), which are buried by lava flows from Sairecabur on the northern rim; one of these lava flows reaches the caldera bottom.

Glacial erosion has affected Sairecabur and moraines cover some lava flows south of Sairecabur.[31] The total volume of the Sairecabur proper is about 35 cubic kilometres (8.4 cu mi).[12]

Lava flows with a young appearance extend from each of these ten centres. An older centre has generated a 30 kilometres (19 mi) long lava flow that flowed southwestwards.[18] Some older lava flows from Sairecabur were later buried by lava flows from Licancabur.[14]

Cerro Colorado and Curiquinca are aligned in a west-east pattern. Other volcanoes in the area such as Lascar-Aguas Calientes, Licancabur-Juriques and La Torta-Tocorpuri also form such alignments which seem to be controlled by north-south tension in the crust.[32] Sairecabur is located on faults which are also apparent at Laguna Verde.[33]

  • Escalante
    Escalante
  • Cerro Colorado
    Cerro Colorado
  • Curiquinca
    Curiquinca
  • Sairecabur
    Sairecabur
  • Left Saciel, right Sairecabur
    Left Saciel, right Sairecabur

Petrology

Escalante and Sairecabur have erupted dark andesites, and later also dacites.

calc-alkaline with medium-high potassium content.[34][35]

patine covers post-caldera lavas.[36]

Based on crystal composition, the magmas of Sairecabur formed at temperatures of 850–950 °C (1,560–1,740 °F). The process started by partial melting of the mantle involving peridotite and subsequent interaction with the crust and fractional crystallization.[34] Andesites erupted before the caldera formation were produced at temperatures 90 °C (160 °F) higher than dacites erupted after the formation of the caldera.[38] Oxygen, lead and strontium isotope ratios are typical for magmas in CVZ.[18] The Pb isotope ratios are consistent with these found in the crust,[39] specifically of the so-called "Antofalla" domain of Andean crust,[40] the remnant of a terrane of Gondwana.[41]

Geological history

The 7 million year-old Chaxas ignimbrite massif has been related to the caldera-forming eruption at Sairecabur. These dacitic ignimbrites spread southwest towards the Salar de Atacama.

stratigraphic relationships of this ignimbrite to older ignimbrite.[42] The lava formations are named Post-Caldera Lavas I and Post-Caldera Lavas II; the first is of Pleistocene and the second of Holocene age.[12] A fresh flow that extends northwest from Sairecabur appears to be the most recent flow.[43]

The formation of the caldera occurred before the Holocene[44] and preceded the formation of the other cones in the range.[34] The edifice this caldera formed during the Pliocene-Quaternary considering the morphology of its deposits.[33] During the ice ages, a valley due west of the main Sairecabur summit was occupied by a 8-kilometre (5.0 mi) long glacier that extended down to an elevation of 4,600 metres (15,100 ft); the main Sairecabur summit grew inside of the valley occupied by the glacier, which also left lateral and terminal moraines.[45]

Sairecabur volcano is the youngest volcano in the chain; Escalante is also young but not as young as Sairecabur. There are no reports of contemporaneous activity nor has

fumarolic activity been reported,[18] although fumaroles and hot springs were found at the shores of Laguna Verde which border on Sairecabur.[46] Future activity at Sairecabur may disturb activity at Atacama Large Millimeter Array,[47] and will most likely involve the production of lava domes and lava flows with local impacts.[44]

Climate and biology

The climate at Sairecabur is dry and cloudless,

rainshadow effect exercised by the Andes and the stability of the South Pacific High are responsible for this dryness.[53]

The dry and cloudless climate together with the low latitude and high altitude gives the region some of the highest

Ultraviolet radiation is also high in the area,[55] with values 15.6–36.4 watts per square metre (0.00194–0.00453 hp/sq ft) reported for ultraviolet radiation B and ultraviolet radiation A respectively.[56]

Temperatures at 5,820 metres (19,090 ft) ranged −8.7 – −16.3 °C (16.3–2.7 °F) in 1991–1994.[57] A series of measurements in 1995 indicated that surface temperatures at an altitude of 5,820 metres (19,090 ft) range from −20–20 °C (−4–68 °F) in winter, and soil temperatures at depths of 5 centimetres (2.0 in) also in winter between almost 10 °C (50 °F) and less than −10 °C (14 °F).[58] There are large differences between daytime and night temperatures.[55] Between 1991–1994 the average speed of wind amounted to 5–11 metres per second (16–36 ft/s).[57]

Research on plant diversity in the region west of Sairecabur and Licancabur has shown that about 250 plant species occur there,

extremophilic yeast species have been found.[60] In 1955, penitentes, a form of ice, was reported to be widespread at Saciel.[61]

Human history

Pre-modern times

The name of the mountain means "rain mountain" in the

sacred mountain,[64] and andesite found at some archeological sites in the Atacama may come from Sairecabur.[65]

Recent times

A sulfur mine is active at Saciel, north of Sairecabur.[18] Sulfur mining there, at Cerro Colorado and Putana in the 1950s contributed to the growth of San Pedro de Atacama,[66] where the mined sulfur was transported to.[67] A report in 1955 indicated the presence of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) ore containing 55–60% sulfur.[68] A 21-kilometre (13 mi) long mining dirt road with a single lane leads from the El Tatio highway to Sairecabur.[69]

Sairecabur is since 2003 the site of the 0.8-metre (2 ft 7 in) diameter Receiver Lab Telescope,[70] a telescope which operates in the terahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum; ground-based astronomy in this range was long considered to be impossible since the atmosphere absorbs radiation in that frequency range heavily.[71] With an altitude of 5,525 metres (18,127 ft) the telescope is the highest submillimeter telescope in the world.[72]

Gallery

  • The Sairecabur range. From right to the left, Cerro Colorado, Escalante, Ojos del Toro, Saciel and Sairecabur.
    The Sairecabur range. From right to the left, Cerro Colorado, Escalante, Ojos del Toro, Saciel and Sairecabur.
  • Sairecabur range
    Sairecabur range
  • Sairecabur proper
    Sairecabur proper

Notes

  1. ALOS 5,928 metres (19,449 ft)[24] and TanDEM-X 6,001 metres (19,688 ft).[25]
  2. parent peak is Acamarachi and the Topographic isolation is 69.6 kilometres (43.2 mi).[27]

References

  1. ^ a b c d "Sairecabur". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  2. ^ "Sairecabur". Andes Specialists. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  3. ^ Antonio Beorchia Nigris. Los Santuarios Indigenas.
  4. S2CID 129394384
    .
  5. .
  6. ^ Zeil 1959, p. 226.
  7. ^ Zeil 1959, p. 227.
  8. ^ Zeil 1959, p. 221.
  9. .
  10. SERNAGEOMIN. p. 548. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on November 12, 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  11. ^ Zeil 1959, p. 219.
  12. ^ a b c d e Figueroa & Figueroa 2006, p. 459.
  13. .
  14. ^ a b Figueroa, Oscar A.; Deruelle, Bernard (September 1996). "Licancabur, an andesitic volcano of the Central Andes" (PDF). Third ISAG: 563. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
  15. ^ Terán, Neff & Sebring 2006, p. 2.
  16. ^
    The University of Texas at Austin
    .
  17. ^ "Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904)". Treaty of 20 October 1904 (PDF). Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Escalante & Sairecabur". Volcano World. Oregon State University. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  19. ^ Niemeyer 1980, p. 170.
  20. .
  21. ^ Niemeyer 1980, p. 173.
  22. ^ USGS, EROS Archive. "USGS EROS Archive - Digital Elevation - SRTM Coverage Maps". Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  23. ^ a b "ASTER GDEM Project". ssl.jspacesystems.or.jp. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
  24. ^ "ALOS GDEM Project". Retrieved 14 April 2020.
  25. ^ TanDEM-X, TerraSAR-X. "Copernicus Space Component Data Access". Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  26. ^ "Andean Mountains - All above 5000m". Andes Specialists. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  27. ^ "Sairecabur". Andes Specialists. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  28. ^ a b c "Sairecabur". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution., Synonyms & Subfeatures
  29. ^ Deruelle 1982, pp. 25–26.
  30. ^ a b Deruelle 1982, p. 22.
  31. ^ a b c Deruelle 1982, p. 25.
  32. .
  33. ^ a b Deruelle 1982, p. 21.
  34. ^ a b c d e Deruelle 1982, p. 20.
  35. ^ a b Figueroa & Figueroa 2006, p. 460.
  36. ^ a b c d Deruelle 1982, p. 26.
  37. ^ Deruelle 1982, p. 29.
  38. ^ Deruelle 1982, p. 27.
  39. ^ Figueroa & Figueroa 2006, p. 461.
  40. ^ Mamani, Worner & Sempere 2009, p. 177.
  41. ^ Mamani, Worner & Sempere 2009, pp. 169–170.
  42. ^ Ramirez 1979, p. 38.
  43. ^ "Sairecabur". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution., Photo Gallery
  44. ^
    ISSN 0717-7305. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on June 29, 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  45. .
  46. ISBN 9780128099353. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  47. ^ Otárola, Angel; Hofstadt, Daniel (18 March 2002). "ALMA memo # 413 Physical parameters of the Chajnantor Science Preserve" (PDF). NRAO Library. National Radio Astronomy Observatory. p. 4. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
  48. ^
    S2CID 130533390
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  49. ^ Pulschen et al. 2015, pp. 574–575.
  50. ^ "CALAMA" (Map). GVP (1 ed.). 1:250000 (in Spanish). Instituto Geografico Militar Chile. 1985.
  51. ^ Grosjean et al. 1995, p. 241.
  52. ^ Grosjean et al. 1995, p. 251.
  53. ^ Schröder & Schmidt 1997, p. 235.
  54. ^ Schröder, Hilmar; Makki, Mohsen; Ciutura, Maria (1 January 2003). "Die Zusammensetzung und morphologische Wirksamkeit der Salze in der ariden Höhenregion der Atacama (Chile)". Mitteilungen der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft (in German). 43 (1): 261.
  55. ^ a b Pulschen et al. 2015, p. 575.
  56. ^ Pulschen et al. 2015, p. 579.
  57. ^
    S2CID 25806993
    .
  58. ^ Schröder & Schmidt 1997, p. 237.
  59. ^ Richter 2009, p. 103.
  60. ^ Pulschen et al. 2015, p. 583.
  61. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 164.
  62. ISSN 0719-8477
    .
  63. .
  64. .
  65. .
  66. ^ Rudolph 1952, p. 563.
  67. ^ Rudolph 1952, p. 579.
  68. ^ Rudolph 1955, p. 153.
  69. ^ Terán, Neff & Sebring 2006, pp. 2–3.
  70. S2CID 38727123
    .
  71. ^ Marrone et al. 2004, p. 1.
  72. ^ Marrone et al. 2004, p. 2.

Sources

External links