Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica

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Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica
Salmonella Typhimurium colonies on a Hektoen enteric agar plate
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Pseudomonadota
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Enterobacterales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Salmonella
Species:
Subspecies:
S. e. subsp. enterica
Trinomial name
Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica is a

typhoid.[1]

Serovars

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovars are defined based on their somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens, with over 2,600 serovars in total; only about 50 of these serovars are common causes of infections in humans.[2] Most of these serovars are found in the environment and survive in plants, water, and soil; many serovars have broad host ranges that allow them to colonize different species in mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Zoonotic diseases, like Salmonella, spread between the environment and people.[3]

A number of techniques are currently used to differentiate between serotypes. These include looking for the presence or absence of antigens, phage typing, molecular fingerprinting and biotyping, where serovars are differentiated by which nutrients they are able to ferment. A possible factor in determining the host range of particular serovars is phage-mediated acquisition of a small number of genetic elements that enable infection of a particular host.[4] It is further postulated that serovars which infect a narrow range of species have diverged from ancestors with a broad host range, and have since specialised and lost the ability to infect some hosts.[5]

The CDC publishes a Salmonella Annual Report with a list of serovars most commonly associated with human illness, the top 10 serovars are listed below:[6]

Rank Serotype Percent
1 Enteritidis 16.8
2 Newport 10.1
3 Typhimurium 9.8
4 Javiana 5.8
5 I 4,[5],12:i:- 4.7
6 Infantis 2.7
7 Muenchen 2.6
8 Montevideo 2.2
9 Braenderup 2.1
10 Thompson 1.7
- Other 41.5

Studies have concluded most strains of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovars possess serotype-specific virulence

endotoxins, coded by the stn and slyA genes, that attribute to the pathogenicity of Enteritidis.[11]

In November 2016, a new strain of extensively drug resistant (XDR) Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi emerged in Pakistan, primarily from the cities of

third-generation cephalosporins. The outbreak has been ongoing since 2016.[14]

Nomenclature

The nomenclature of Salmonella enterica has long been a topic of debate in the microbiology community.[15] Originally in the 1880s, Salmonella species were named after the disease, host, or geological location they were associated with; however, this taxonomic characterization was contested due to genus members being categorized incompatibly with their genetic similarities. In the 1980s, the emergence of nucleotide sequencing and DNA hybridization led many established bacteriologists such as Le Minor and Popoff (1987), Euzéby (1999), and Ezaki and Yabuuchi (2000) to put forth their proposals for nomenclature changes.[16] It was not until 2005, that Le Minor and Popoff reproposed and established that "Salmonella enterica" would be the approved species name – excluding Salmonella bongori – and that Salmonella enterica contains six subspecies, of which Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica contains the most serovars.[17] Technological advancements allow researchers to use whole genome sequencing data to identify and group serovars using two methods: sequence typing and antigen recognition.[18]

Serovar names are capitalized but not italicized or underlined. Serovars may be designated in full form or short form (includes just the genus and serovar names). For example, in full designation Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is written as such, but in short designation it is written as Salmonella Typhi.[19] Each serovar can have many strains, as well, which allows for a rapid increase in the total number of antigenically variable bacteria.[20]

Epidemiology

The World Health Organization characterizes

antimicrobial drugs in the poorest health services in the world.[25] But also bacterial factors, such as upregulated activity of the virulence gene pgtE, due to a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in its promoter region, have been shown to have a great impact upon the pathogenesis of this particular Salmonella sequence type.[26]

Survival and stress

There are factors that can increase the infection risk. These include a higher pH in the stomach, gastric resection, and treatment with anti acid buffering.

defensive technique to potentially avoid infection.[28]

This strain is mesophilic and some can survive extremely low or high temperatures which can range from 2 °C – 54 °C.[29] Sigma factors inside the cell control the gene expression and they can sense the changes in the environment from the outer membrane by activation of genes that then respond to heat stress and adapt accordingly.[30] S. enterica also can quickly respond to cold temperatures by cold shock proteins (CSP) by synthesizing themselves so that the cell can later resume growth.[31] Chlorine can be a chemical stressor to S. enterica because once chlorine is present, S. enterica can produce a biofilm that provides itself with a exopolysaccharide matrix that has the ability of a chemical attack against chlorine.[32] From this, chlorine has preventative measures for biofilm formation in poultry drinking systems and this reduces the risk of S. enterica.[33] Successful adaptation allows S. enterica to withstand more acidic conditions, counteracting stomach antibacterial effects.[34]

References

  1. ^ Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Pfaller MA (2009). Medical Microbiology (6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Mosby Elsevier. p. 307.
  2. ^ Grimont PA, Weill FX (November 2007). "Antigenic formulae of the Salmonella serovars". WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Salmonella. 9: 1–66.
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  6. ^ "National Enteric Disease Surveillance: Salmonella Annual Report, 2016" (PDF). CDC.gov. 2016.
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  8. ^ CDC (2023-07-21). "Persistent Strain of Salmonella Infantis (REPJFX01) Linked to Chicken". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  9. ^ "FSIS NARMS Multi-Year Report – 2014-2019". fsis.usda.gov. 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  10. ^ "Isolates Browser - Pathogen Detection - NCBI". ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
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  12. ^ Daley J (21 February 2018). "Typhoid Outbreak in Pakistan Linked to Extensively Drug-Resistant Bacteria". The Scientist Magazine®. Retrieved 2018-09-03.
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  14. ^ "Extensively Drug-Resistant Typhoid Fever in Pakistan – Alert – Level 2, Practice Enhanced Precautions". Travel Health Notices. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2018-09-03.
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  19. ^ "Scientific Nomenclature". Emerging Infectious Dieases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
  20. ^ "Salmonella spp. comparative sequencing". Wellcome Trust Genome Campus. Archived from the original on 2007-11-14.
  21. ^ "Salmonella (non-typhoidal)". www.who.int. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  22. PMID 21413334
    , retrieved 2023-10-26
  23. ^ a b Ehuwa O, Jaiswal AK, Jaiswal S. Salmonella, food safety and food handling practices. Foods. 2021;10(5). doi:https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/10/5/907/htm
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