Salvia divinorum
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Salvia divinorum | |
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Vegetative habit of Salvia divinorum | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Lamiales |
Family: | Lamiaceae |
Genus: | Salvia |
Species: | S. divinorum
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Binomial name | |
Salvia divinorum | |
Native distribution of Salvia divinorum in Southwest Mexico[2] |
Part of a series on |
Psychedelia |
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Salvia divinorum (
Its native habitat is cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca, Mexico, where it grows in shady, moist locations.[7][8] The plant grows to over a meter high,[1] has hollow square stems like others in the mint family Lamiaceae, large leaves, and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes. Botanists have not determined whether S. divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid because native plants reproduce vegetatively and rarely produce viable seed.[9][10]
Because the plant has not been well-studied in high-quality
Etymology
The genus name, Salvia, was first used by
Common names
There are many common names for S. divinorum, including sage of the diviners,[20] ska maría pastora,[21] seer's sage,[18] yerba de la pastora,[22] simply salvia also sally-d and magic mint.[5]
History
Salvia divinorum is native to the
It is also used in smaller amounts, as a diuretic, and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as panzón de borrego, or a swollen belly (literally, "lamb belly").[12][23]
The history of the plant is not well known, and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin. Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area; a cultigen of the Mazatecs; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group. Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen.[24]
Academic discovery
Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by
The identity of another mysterious
Botany
Salvia divinorum has large green
The flowers, which bloom only rarely, grow in whorls on a 30-centimetre (12 in) inflorescence, with about six flowers to each whorl. The 3-centimetre (1+1⁄4 in) flowers are white, curved and covered with hairs, and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands. When it does bloom in its native habitat, it does so from September to May.[33]
Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue
Distribution and habitat
Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, growing in the primary or secondary cloud forest and tropical evergreen forest at elevations from 300 to 1,830 metres (980 to 6,000 ft). Its most common habitat is black soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity.[33][35]
Reproduction
Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower—no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild. For an unknown reason, pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced. There is no active
Taxonomy
Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939; yet, it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites.[7] Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species. In 1962, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals while looking for specimens of the plant. They were unable to locate live plants. Eventually, the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens.[25] These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva, who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum, in reference to its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec.[7] By 1985, up to fifteen populations of the plant had been located.[33]
Until 2010, there were differing opinions as to whether Salvia divinorum is an
In 2010, a
The origin of Salvia divinorum was still a mystery as of 1993, one of only three plants in the extensive genus Salvia (approximately 900 species) with unknown origins—the other two being Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii.[41]
Strains
There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct. One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell (the Bunnell strain), colloquially mis-attributed as the Wasson-Hofmann strain. The other was collected from
Cultivation
Propagation by cuttings
Salvia divinorum is usually propagated through
Flowering
Blooms occur when the
Chemistry
The known active constituent of Salvia divinorum is a trans-
Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid (meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen), unlike most known opioid receptor ligands.[50] Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen.[32]
Similar to many psychoactive herbs, Salvia divinorum synthesizes and excretes its active constituent (salvinorin A) via
Potency
By mass, salvinorin A "is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen."
In experiments, salvinorin A has shown little toxicity. Rodents chronically exposed to levels many times greater than those to which humans expose themselves show no signs of organ damage.[14]
Other terpenoids
Other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum, including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins.[58] None of these compounds has shown significant (sub-micromolar) affinity at the κ-opioid receptor, and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant's psychoactivity.[59][60]
Other pharmaceutical action
Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess
A pharmacologically important aspect of the contraction-reducing (antispasmodic) properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue, thus reducing possible side-effects.[64]
Ingestion
There are a few ways to consume Salvia divinorum. In traditional Mazatec ritual, shamans use only fresh Salvia divinorum leaves. Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle, salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed, an altered state of consciousness can occur. The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed.
Traditional methods
Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method.[65][66] Oral consumption of the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly, over a period of 10 to 20 minutes. The experience, from the onset of effects, lasts from about 30 minutes up to one and a half hours.[67]
Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking. By calculating the concentrations per leaf ("an average concentration of 2.45 mg per gram" of leaf),[68] the average weight per leaf ("about 50 g" per 20 leaves, or 2.5 g/leaf),[69] and the standard dose for chewing (about 8–28 leaves),[65] the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg.
Modern methods
Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf, or using a tincture, as described in the following sections.
Smoking
Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe, or through the use of a
Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects.[65] Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves, have become widely available. This enhanced (or "fortified") leaf is described by a number followed by an x (e.g. 5x, 10x), the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of leaf concentrate, though there is no accepted standard for these claims. Other sources may use a system of color codes to form their own standards of potency; for example, "green", "yellow", and "red."
These grades of potency may be roughly indicative of the relative concentration of the
If salvia is smoked, then the main effects are experienced quickly. The most intense 'peak' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for 1–5 minutes, followed by a gradual tapering off. At 5–10 minutes, less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist, giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to
Quid chewing
The
Using a tincture
Less commonly, some may ingest salvia in the form of a
When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion, though they may be significantly more intense, depending on extract potency.[65]
Effects
Aside from individual reported experiences, there has been a limited amount of published work summarising salvia divinorum effects. A survey of salvia users found that 38% described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness. 23% said the effects were like yoga, meditation or trance.[75] Users have written prose about their experiences;[76][77] some describing their visions pictorially, and there exist examples of visionary art which are 'salvia-inspired'. Others claim musical inspiration from the plant.[77]
Near-death experience
A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences.[78]
Safety
Dale Pendell expressed some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia. In its natural form, salvia is more balanced and benevolent – and quite strong enough, he argues. High strength extracts on the other hand can show "a more precipitous, and more terrifying, face" and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience.[79]
Vaporization
Ethnobotanist Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs. Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation.[80]
Research
An ABC news report said excitement over research into Salvia "could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia, as the Drug Enforcement Agency [sic] is considering doing right now."[81] A proposed Schedule I classification would mean (among other things) that there is no "currently accepted medical use" as far as the United States government is concerned.[82] Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work.[83][84] Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia's therapeutic promise.[81]
Controversy
The relatively recent emergence of Salvia divinorum in modern Western culture, in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use, contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject.
Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or "a gift from the gods",[23][85] to a "threat to society", to be banned as quickly as possible in order to "spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse".[86]
Media coverage
Interest in Salvia divinorum has been escalating in the news media, particularly in the United States, where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast.[87]
These stories generally raise alarms over salvia's legal status, for example comparing it to LSD,[88][89][90] or describing it as "the new pot",[91] with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia's use by younger teens.
Story headlines may also include 'danger' keywords, such as "Dangerous Herb is Legal..."[92] or "Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High".[93]
Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject. In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington, DC on July 11, 2007, the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction "Now, an exclusive I-Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation. What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it".[94]
In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story "A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation", going on to say, "The drug is legal in Texas, at least for now. But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids."[95]
Many salvia media stories headline with comparisons to LSD. However, while LSD and salvinorin A may have comparative potencies, in the sense that both can produce their effects at low dosages, they are otherwise quite different. The two substances are not chemically similar or related, as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine. They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects, which manifest themselves over different timescales. For example, the effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD, whose effects can persist for 8–12 hours.[67][96]
Brett's law
A particular focus of many US media stories is the long-running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester,[94][97] a 17-year-old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning.
Reportedly, some months before this, Brett's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it. Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation, but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth. They have instead argued that salvia-induced depression was largely to blame for his death. Some of Brett's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think "existence in general is pointless." Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett's suicide note.
Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media, there has not been anywhere else, either before or since this controversial incident, any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide, overdose, accidental, or any other kind of death. Regarding this, San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented, "It's remarkable that Chidester's parents, and only Chidester's parents, continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed 'controversy' over the risks of Salvia divinorum."[99]
Kathleen Chidester has continued campaigning for "Schedule I"-like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware. For example, three years after Brett's death, in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature, saying, "My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the US. It's my son's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens."[100]
Usage shown on YouTube
This article needs to be updated.(October 2020) |
In 2007, videos were shared on YouTube of alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably, apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate.[94][101] In an interview published in the San Francisco Chronicle in June 2007, Daniel Siebert said that the videos "make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous ..." and that it stops people from realizing "there are sensible ways to use something like this."[102]
Waco Representative Charles Anderson (R), who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas,[nb 3] told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car. "What we really worry about, is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere."[103]
Michigan Representative Michael Sak (D) submitted a bill which proposed Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A.[104] He said that if people had questions about the deleterious effects of salvia, they should go on YouTube to watch the videos. A reporter questioned Sak as to whether he had ever seen a "Girls Gone Wild" video, and whether that would incite him to make alcohol illegal (Sak replied that he hadn't yet had a chance to review the material).[nb 4]
Nebraska Senator
In Massachusetts, YouTube videos were shown by a retired police officer to public health and judiciary committees as evidence in favor of outlawing it there.[109]
The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube's own community guidelines, which ask users not to "cross the line" and post videos showing "bad stuff" like "drug abuse".[110] The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area.[111]
Legal status
Many countries control Salvia divinorum in some manner.[6][112] As of 2015, it is illegal in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, South Korea, Sweden, and Switzerland. It is legal to possess and grow in Chile, France and Spain, but not to sell. In Russia, it is legal to possess, but not grow or sell. Estonia, Finland, Iceland, and Norway treat it as a medicinal herb that requires a prescription.[113]
The prohibitive degree of Salvia divinorum legislation varies widely from country to country. Australia has imposed its strictest '
Legislation may prove difficult to enforce. The plant has a nondescript appearance; unlike many other drug plants, the leaves are non-descript, and without a detectable odour. Salvia divinorum can be grown as an ordinary
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, following a local newspaper story in October 2005,
On the 28 January 2016, the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 was passed. The act came into force on 26 May 2016, across the entire United Kingdom, making S. divinorum illegal to possess with intent to supply, possess on custodial premises, import for human consumption, or produce for human consumption. The two sponsors for the bill were Conservative House of Lords member Michael Bates and Conservative MP Theresa May.[123]
Australia
Salvia divinorum is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).[124] A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO."[125]
United States
National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by
Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act, as of 2009, it had been made illegal in 13 states.[130][131] Delaware banned it after salvia use was reported to have played a role in the suicide of a teenager.[131] Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Texas, and other states have passed their own laws.[6][132][133] Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia, including Alaska, California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Many of these proposals have not made it into law, with motions having failed, stalled or otherwise died, for example at committee review stages.[113][112]
Where individual state legislation does exist, it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree.[113]
Legal consequences may also exist even in states without bans on salvia in particular. Christian Firoz, a Nebraska store owner, was charged for selling salvia, but not under the auspices of any specific law against Salvia divinorum. Firoz was instead charged under a general Nebraskan statute where it is illegal to sell a product to induce an intoxicated condition. See also the legal status of salvia in North Dakota and Nebraska.
Salvia divinorum has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases.[134][135][136][137]
Internet sale
Some internet vendors will not sell live salvia cuttings, leaf, or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited.[138] Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy, eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products (despite legality in most areas).[139]
Opinions and arguments
Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media, with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on "
Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature, "We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem,"[145] or of an imitative nature, "The Australians have clearly found a problem with it. There's obviously a risk in people taking it."[119] Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed.[146][147]
Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine.[148][nb 5][nb 6] While not objecting to some form of legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation.[113]
Those advocating consideration of Salvia divinorum's potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture, where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament. In light of this it is argued that Salvia divinorum could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen.[153][nb 7]
Public opinion
Despite its growing notoriety in some circles, media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia, with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it.[97]
Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole, some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories.[86][88][95][97][157]
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Street Names: Maria Pastora, Sage of the Seers, Diviner's Sage, Salvia, Sally-D, Magic Mint
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Citations
- Babu, Kavita M.; McCurdy, Christopher R.; Boyer, Edward W. (2008). "Opioid receptors and legal highs: Salvia divinorum and Kratom". Clinical Toxicology. 46 (2): 146–152. S2CID 32501470.
- Baca, Rep. Joe (October 2002). "To amend the Controlled Substances Act to place Salvinorin A in Schedule I (H.R.5607)". Bills, Resolutions. The Library of Congress (THOMAS). Archived from the original on 2013-10-25. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
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Notes
- ^ Botanist Valdés (1987), wrote that, "It is doubtful that the Salvia is a true cultigen", based partly on his belief that it was first "collected in the highlands and planted in more accessible places, where it becomes naturalized". The main cultigen proponent is Gordon Wasson, who is not a botanist.
- ^ Reisfield is unsure why Epling "used the invalid name (the synonym rather than the valid name S. concolor), nor why he considered this species close to S. divinorum".
- ^ In fact the video is one in a series of parodies featuring Erik J. Hoffstad, a production assistant in Los Angeles. In the film Hoffstad smokes salvia in a parked car (his friends reportedly making sure he did not have the real keys).[103]
- ^ The reporter noted that Sak had received more money from the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association than anyone else in the House.[105] According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association was the highest contributor to Zak's 2006 political campaign.[106]
- ^ According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, which indicates the major sources of campaign contributions for U.S. politicians, a large part of contributions to U.S. Congressional campaigns comes from alcohol and tobacco industries.[149] For example, Oregon Representative John Lim"s third largest individual campaign sponsor in 2006 was the Oregon Beer & Wine Distributors Association[106] Lim(R) argued for Schedule I classification of Salvia in Oregon. Former Delaware Senator Karen Peterson's second largest group campaign donations in 2006 came from "Beer, Wine & Liquor" industries.[106] Peterson(D) introduced Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Delaware. Senator Tim Burchett(R) sponsored Salvia legislation in Tennessee. In 2006, his second largest individual campaign donation came from the Tennessee Malt Beverage Association.[106] In the same period alcohol and tobacco related contributions amounted to the fourth largest industry contributions for Utah Representative Paul Ray(R).[106] Representative Ray submitted a bill calling for Schedule I classification of Salvia in that state.[142] Alcohol related contributions also featured highly for Illinois Representative Dennis Reboletti(R) "Beer, Wine & Liquor" was his ninth highest industry contributor in 2006 and 2008.[106] Representative Reboletti sponsored a bill for Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Illinois.[150]
- ^ The worldwide number of alcohol-related deaths is calculated at over 2,000 people per day,[151] in the US the number is over 300 deaths per day.[152]
- iboga, virola, ayahuasca, and various types of psychoactive fungi.[154] Current U.S. Federal law allows two of these to be used in a spiritual context. The Native American Church is permitted use of peyote; the União do Vegetal (or UDV) is permitted use of ayahuasca.[155] Although not consistently granted (varying from state to state), the principal grounds for such concessions are constitutional,[156] with further grounds following from the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.
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