Same-sex marriage in the United States

Since July 9, 2015, married same-sex couples throughout the United States have had equal access to all the federal benefits that married opposite-sex couples have.[21]

The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was enacted in 1996. DOMA's Section 2 says that no state needs to recognize the legal validity of a same-sex relationship even if recognized as marriage by another state. It purports to relieve a state of its reciprocal obligation to honor the laws of other states as required by the Constitution's Full Faith and Credit Clause.^[22] Even before DOMA, however, states sometimes refused to recognize a marriage from another jurisdiction if it was counter to its "strongly held public policies".^[23] Most lawsuits that sought to require a state to recognize a marriage established in another jurisdiction argue on the basis of equal protection and due process, not the Full Faith and Credit Clause.^[a]

DOMA's Section 3 defined marriage for the purposes of federal law as a union of one man and one woman.

The federal government recognizes the marriages of same-sex couples who married in certain states in which same-sex marriage was legal for brief periods between the time a court order allowed such couples to marry and that court order was stayed, including Michigan. It also recognized marriages performed in Utah from December 20, 2013, to January 6, 2014, even while the state didn't. Under similar circumstances, it never took a position on Indiana or Wisconsin's marriages performed in brief periods, though it did recognize them once the respective states announced they would do so. It had not taken a position with respect to similar marriages in Arkansas prior to the Obergefell decision legalizing and recognizing same-sex marriages in all fifty states.^[43] The State Marriage Defense Act was proposed in Congress to force the federal government to follow individual state laws regarding same-sex marriage although it never passed either chamber.^[44]

Opponents of same-sex marriage have worked to prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex unions by attempting to amend the United States Constitution to restrict marriage to heterosexual unions. In 2006, the Federal Marriage Amendment, which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on a party-line vote and was debated by the full Senate, but was ultimately defeated in both houses of Congress.^[45] On April 2, 2014, the Alabama House of Representatives adopted a resolution calling for a constitutional convention to propose an amendment to ban same-sex marriage nationwide.^[46]

In 2022, Justice Clarence Thomas named Obergefell v. Hodges as a case that should be revisited in his concurrence of Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, which had overturned Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey on the basis that abortion protection was not a "deeply rooted" right in the Constitution. To prevent the loss of the right to same-sex marriage, the House of Representatives passed the Respect for Marriage Act which would nullify DOMA and protect both same-sex and interracial marriages. In July, the bill passed 267–157, with 47 Republican representatives joining the Democrats.^[47] In December, the Senate passed the bill 61–36, and the House again voted 258–169 to pass it.^[48] President Joe Biden signed it into law on December 13, 2022.^[49]

State and territorial recognition

Same-sex marriages are licensed in and recognized by all U.S. states and the District of Columbia, as well as all U.S. territories except American Samoa.^[50] However, under the Respect for Marriage Act, American Samoa must recognize all marriages between two people that were legally performed in another jurisdiction.

On January 6, 2016, Alabama's Chief Justice, Roy Moore, issued a ruling forbidding state officials from issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples.^[51] The ruling had no effect as all Alabama counties continued either issuing marriage licenses to all couples or not issuing licenses at all. In May 2016, Moore was charged with ethics violations by the state Judicial Inquiry Commission for the ruling,^[52] subsequently being suspended from the bench for the remainder of his term on September 30 of that year.^[53]

Counties not issuing marriage licenses

As of 2020, there are apparently no counties in the United States that do not (or would not) register the marriages of same-sex couple.

• Officials of one Texas county, Irion, issued marriage licenses, but claimed they would refuse same-sex couples.^[54] Starting in 2017, they refused to comment on what they would do if a same-sex couple were to apply for license.^[55] However, as of March 2020, the Irion County clerk stated she would issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and the form available on the office's website was not gender specific and stated no restrictions as to the genders of the applicants.^[56]
• Officials in several Alabama counties initially stopped issuing any marriage licenses rather than issue them to same-sex couples. By 2017, the number of counties doing this to avoid issuing them to same-sex couples dropped to eight.^[57][58] This was in accordance with a state law, which was passed in 1961 to preserve racial segregation by making it optional for county clerks to issue marriage licenses.^[59] The Alabama Legislature passed a bill replacing marriage licenses with marriage certificates in May 2019.^[60] These final eight counties resumed allowing couples to marry on August 29, 2019.
• Several Kentucky counties initially refused to marry same-sex couples. In response, Kentucky reformed its marriage license forms and removed the name of the county clerk from the licenses. As of June 2016, Chris Hartmann, director of the Kentucky-based Fairness Campaign, said that to his knowledge "there are no counties where marriage licenses are being denied" in his state.^[61]

Parental rights

Post-Obergefell, six states have, on occasion, attempted to deny same-sex couples full adoption rights to varying degrees. In Arkansas, Florida, Indiana, and Wisconsin, same-sex couples have been met with rejection when trying to get both parents' names listed on the birth certificate. In V.L. v. E.L., Alabama's highest court attempted to void an adoption decree obtained by a same-sex couple in Georgia, but the U.S. Supreme Court reversed, restoring joint custody to the adoptive mother on March 7, 2016. Mississippi had once banned same-sex couples from adopting, but the law requiring this was ruled unconstitutional by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi on March 31, 2016. With that ruling, adoption by same-sex couples became legal in all fifty states.^[62][63]

On June 26, 2017, the Supreme Court ruled by a 6–3 vote in the case of

The Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in the states and territories did not legalize same-sex marriage in Native American tribal nations. In the United States, Congress (not the federal courts) has legal authority over Native reservations. Thus, unless Congress passes a law regarding same-sex marriage on such reservations, federally recognized Native American tribes have the legal right to form their own marriage laws.^[65] As of the time of the Obergefell ruling, 25 tribal nations legally recognized same-sex marriage. Some tribes have passed legislation specifically addressing same-sex relationships and some specify that state law and jurisdiction govern tribal marriages. As of April 2022, same-sex marriage is legally recognized in at least 47 tribal nations.^[66]

Local laws prior to Obergefell v. Hodges

Prior to Obergefell,

had not taken a position on Arkansas's marriage licenses.

States and territories with same-sex marriage before Obergefell v. Hodges

State or territory	Population[69]	Date of Enactment/Ruling	Date Effective	Legalization method	Details
Alaska	736,732	October 12, 2014	October 17, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the District of Alaska ruling in Hamby v. Parnell.[70]
Arizona	6,731,484	October 17, 2014	October 17, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the District of Arizona ruling in Connolly v. Jeanes and in Majors v. Horne.[71]
California	38,802,500	May 15, 2008	June 16, 2008	State court decision → overturned by constitutional ban	Proposition 8 passed on November 5, 2008.
		August 4, 2010	June 28, 2013	Federal court decision → legislative statute	vacated the Ninth Circuit decision below, resulting with the original decision in Perry left intact.[72] Gender-neutral marriage bill passed by the California State Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of California took effect on January 1, 2015.[73]
Colorado	5,355,866	July 9, 2014	October 7, 2014	State court decision	Colorado district court ruling in Brinkman v. Long
		July 23, 2014		Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the District of Colorado ruling in Burns v. Hickenlooper
Connecticut	3,596,677	October 10, 2008	November 12, 2008	State court decision → legislative statute	Connecticut Supreme Court ruling in Kerrigan v. Commissioner of Public Health; incorporated into state statutes in April 2009.
Delaware	935,614	May 7, 2013	July 1, 2013	Legislative statute	Passed by the Governor of Delaware .
District of Columbia	658,893	December 18, 2009	March 9, 2010	Legislative statute	Passed by the Council of the District of Columbia.
Florida	19,893,297	August 21, 2014	January 6, 2015	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Florida ruling in Brenner v. Scott .
Guam	165,124 (not included in population total)	June 5, 2015	June 9, 2015	Binding federal court precedent → actions of territorial officials → federal court decision → legislative statute	Attorney General Guam Legislature went into effect on August 27, 2015.[76]
Hawaii	1,419,561	November 13, 2013	December 2, 2013	Legislative statute	Hawaii Marriage Equality Act passed by the Hawaii State Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of Hawaii.
Idaho	1,634,464	October 7, 2014	October 15, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the District of Idaho ruling in Latta v. Otter,[77] upheld by the Ninth Circuit.[78]
Illinois	12,880,580	November 20, 2013	June 1, 2014	Legislative statute	Passed by the Illinois General Assembly and signed into law by the Governor of Illinois.
Indiana	6,596,855	September 4, 2014	October 6, 2014	Federal court decision	Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court's ruling.[79]
Iowa	3,107,126	April 3, 2009	April 27, 2009	State court decision	Iowa Supreme Court ruling in Varnum v. Brien. One same-sex couple obtained a marriage licensed and married before initial ruling was stayed.[80]
Maine	1,330,089	November 6, 2012	December 29, 2012	Initiative statute	Proposed by initiative as referendum Question 1 , approved.
Maryland	5,976,407	November 6, 2012	January 1, 2013	Legislative statute → referendum	Question 6 , upheld.
Massachusetts	6,745,408	November 18, 2003	May 17, 2004	State court decision	Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruling in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health.
Minnesota	5,457,173	May 14, 2013	August 1, 2013	Legislative statute	Passed by the Minnesota Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of Minnesota.
Montana	1,023,579	November 19, 2014	November 19, 2014	Federal court decision	Rolando v. Fox.[81]
Nevada	2,839,099	October 7, 2014	October 9, 2014	Federal court decision → legislative statute	Governor of Nevada went into effect on July 1, 2017.[83][84]
New Hampshire	1,326,813	June 3, 2009	January 1, 2010	Legislative statute	Passed by the New Hampshire General Court and signed into law by the Governor of New Hampshire.
New Jersey	8,938,175	September 27, 2013	October 21, 2013	State court decision	New Jersey Superior Court ruling in Garden State Equality v. Dow.
New Mexico	2,085,572	December 19, 2013	December 19, 2013	State court decision → legislative statute	Griego v. Oliver. Gender-neutral marriage bill passed by the New Mexico Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of New Mexico went into effect on July 1, 2019.[85]
New York	19,746,227	June 24, 2011	July 24, 2011	Legislative statute	Marriage Equality Act passed by the New York State Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of New York.
North Carolina	9,943,964	October 10, 2014	October 10, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the Western District of North Carolina ruling in General Synod of the United Church of Christ v. Cooper.[86]
Oklahoma	3,878,051	July 18, 2014	October 6, 2014	Federal court decision	Tenth Circuit affirmed the ruling in Bishop v. Smith.[87]
Oregon	3,970,239	May 19, 2014	May 19, 2014	Federal court decision → legislative statute	Oregon Legislature and signed into law by the Governor of Oregon went into effect on January 1, 2016.[88]
Pennsylvania	12,787,209	May 20, 2014	May 20, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania ruling in Whitewood v. Wolf .
Rhode Island	1,055,173	May 2, 2013	August 1, 2013	Legislative statute	Passed by the Rhode Island General Assembly and signed into law by the Governor of Rhode Island.
South Carolina	4,832,482	November 12, 2014	November 20, 2014	Federal court decision	Condon v. Haley.[89]
Utah	2,942,902	June 25, 2014	October 6, 2014	Federal court decision	Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court ruling in Kitchen v. Herbert .
Vermont	626,562	April 7, 2009	September 1, 2009	Legislative statute	Passed by the Vermont General Assembly, overriding Governor Jim Douglas' veto.
Virginia	8,326,289	July 28, 2014	October 6, 2014	Federal court decision → Legislative statute	Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the U.S. district court ruling in Bostic v. Schaefer.[91] Bill repealing the ban on same-sex marriage and civil unions passed by the Virginia General Assembly and signed into law by the Governor of Virginia will take effect on July 1, 2020.[92]
Washington	7,061,530	November 6, 2012	December 6, 2012	Legislative statute → referendum	Passed by the Referendum 74 , approved.
West Virginia	1,850,326	October 9, 2014	October 9, 2014	Binding federal court precedent → actions of state officials → federal court decision	Governor McGee v. Cole overturned West Virginia's statutory ban on same-sex marriage on November 7, 2014.[94]
Wisconsin	5,757,564	September 4, 2014	October 6, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin ruling in Wolf v. Walker. The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court's ruling.[95]
Wyoming	584,153	October 17, 2014	October 21, 2014	Federal court decision	U.S. District Court for the District of Wyoming ruling in Guzzo v. Mead.[96]
Total	221,434,635 (69.4% of the U.S. population)

Note: This table shows only states that licensed and recognized same-sex marriages or had legalized them, before Obergefell v. Hodges. It does not include states that recognized same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions but did not license them.

Debate

Support

In the United States and Canada, professional organizations including the American Anthropological Association, the American Counseling Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Nursing, the American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the Canadian Psychological Association, the American Sociological Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Psychoanalytic Association, the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, and the American Academy of Family Physicians have stated that the scientific evidence supports the following conclusions: homosexuality is a natural and normal human sexuality, sexual orientation is not a choice, gay people form stable and committed relationships that are essentially equivalent to the relationships of heterosexuals, same-sex parents are no less capable than opposite-sex parents to raise children, no civilization or viable social order depends on restricting marriage to heterosexuals, and the children of same-sex couples fare just as well or even better than the children of opposite-sex couples.^[97]

Prominent figures in the

Opposition to same-sex marriage is based on claims such as the beliefs that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples.[110] While some researchers question the definitiveness of the evidence,^[111] others assert that science has shown that homosexuality is a natural and normal human sexuality, that sexual orientation cannot be chosen, and that the children of same-sex couples fare just as well or even better than the children of opposite-sex couples.^[97]

Others argue that the word "marriage" has always had a very specific meaning, i.e. the union of a man and a woman. By this argument, calling same-sex unions "marriages" is not a question of law but an example of Newspeak: same-sex unions are an inherently different entity than a marriage, and that entity has only gained legitimacy through Orwellian brainwashing.^[112] Critics of this position counter that historical changes in marriage traditions negate any fixed definition, so the word "marriage" can be infinitely redefined according to the needs of the culture.^[113]

Some of the opponents of same-sex marriage are religious groups such as the Catholic Church and the Southern Baptist Convention which desire for marriage to remain restricted to opposite-sex marriages.^[114] However, there are faith-based supporters of same-sex marriage, and homosexual people of faith, within every faith group.^[115] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints opposed the legalization of same-sex marriage^[116] but in 2022, endorsed a federal bill^[117] requiring states and territories to honor same-sex marriages solemnized in other states (though it reiterated that church doctrine would not change).^[118]

Political donations in opposition of same-sex marriage have been an issue of great dispute. Both judges and the IRS have ruled that it is either questionable or illegal for campaign contributions to be shielded by anonymity.^{[119][120][121]}

Politicians and media figures

Ultimately, I think the Equal Protection Clause does guarantee same-sex marriage in all fifty states. But, as you know, courts have always been strategic. There have been times where the stars were aligned and the Court, like a thunderbolt, issues a ruling like Brown v. Board of Education, but that's pretty rare. And, given the direction of society, for the Court to have allowed the process to play out the way it has may make the shift less controversial and more lasting.^[131]

— President Barack Obama, on the matter of same-sex marriage as a constitutional question

Shortly after winning the 2016 election, President Donald Trump said he's "fine" with same-sex marriage and believes it to be settled law: "It's law. It was settled in the Supreme Court. I mean, it's done."^[132] This somewhat contrasted with a previous statement he made in June 2015, after Obergefell v. Hodges, in which he said he's personally for "traditional marriage" and that he believed same-sex marriage should be left to the states.^[133] In that same statement, however, Trump admitted that overturning Obergefell is not realistic. Several of his federal appointments have also, subsequently, announced they will uphold same-sex marriage and enforce the Supreme Court ruling, while still being personally against same-sex marriage,^[134] namely Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos.^[135]

Former presidents Bill Clinton,^[136] Jimmy Carter,^[137] and Barack Obama, former vice presidents Dick Cheney,^[138] Al Gore,^[139] Walter Mondale,^[140] and Joe Biden have voiced their support for same-sex marriage, as have former first ladies Laura Bush,^[141] Hillary Clinton,^[142] Michelle Obama,^[143] and Nancy Reagan.^[144] Former President George H. W. Bush and his wife former First Lady Barbara Bush served as witnesses to a same-sex wedding, but neither publicly affirmed support for same-sex marriage in general;^[145] George W. Bush reportedly offered to officiate the same wedding,^[146] but has similarly not made a public statement regarding his position on the issue (as president, he was opposed). Fifteen U.S. senators announced their support in the spring of 2013.^[147] By April 2013, a majority of the Senate had expressed support for same-sex marriage.^[148] Senator Rob Portman of Ohio became the first sitting Republican senator to endorse same-sex marriage in March 2013,^[149] followed by Senator Mark Kirk of Illinois in April,^[150] Senator Lisa Murkowski of Alaska in June,^[151] and Senator Susan Collins of Maine a year later.^[152]

Politicians who have notably opposed same-sex marriage have included Rick Santorum, Mike Huckabee, and Sarah Palin.

Prominent politicians who have shifted from opposing to supporting same-sex marriage include Republican Senator Rob Portman, and Republican Representative Bob Barr (the author of the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act).

In an interview on The O'Reilly Factor in August 2010, when Glenn Beck was asked if he "believe(s) that gay marriage is a threat to [this] country in any way", he stated, "No I don't. ... I believe that Thomas Jefferson said: 'If it neither breaks my leg nor picks my pocket what difference is it to me?'"^[153][154]

Studies

The overall effects of legal access to same-sex marriage have been summarized by Badgett and co-authors. ^[155] The review found that sexual minority individuals took-up legal marriage when it became available to them (but at lower rates than different-sex couples). There is instead no evidence that same-sex marriage legalization affected different-sex marriages. On the health side, same-sex marriage legalization increased health insurance coverage for individuals in same-sex couples in the US, and it led to improvements in sexual health among men who have sex with men, while there is mixed evidence on mental health effects among sexual minorities. In addition, the study found mixed evidence on a range of downstream social outcomes such as attitudes toward LGBTQ+ people and employment choices of sexual minorities.

Adolescent attempted suicide

The establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teenagers, with the effect being concentrated among teens of a minority sexual orientation. A study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the rate of attempted suicide among all students in grades 9–12 declined by 7% and the rate of attempted suicide among those of a minority sexual orientation in grades 9–12 declined by 14% in states which established same-sex marriage, resulting in approximately 134,000 fewer teens attempting suicide each year in the United States. The researchers took advantage of the gradual manner in which same-sex marriage was established in the United States (expanding from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015) to compare the rate of attempted suicide among teens in each state over the time period studied. Once same-sex marriage was established in a particular state, the reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teens in that state became permanent. No reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teens occurred in a particular state until that state recognized same-sex marriage. The lead researcher of the study observed that "laws that have the greatest impact on gay adults may make gay kids feel more hopeful for the future".^{[156][157][158][159][160]}

Economic impact on same-sex couples

Until the Supreme Court's June 2013 ruling in

Compared to similarly situated opposite-sex married couples, same-sex couples faced the following financial and legal disadvantages:

• Legal costs associated with obtaining domestic partner documents to gain legal abilities granted automatically by legal marriage, including power of attorney, health care decision-making, and inheritance[163]
• A person can inherit an unlimited amount from a deceased spouse without incurring an estate tax, but was subject to taxes if inheriting from a same-sex partner^[162]
• Same-sex couples were not eligible to file jointly as a married couple and thus could not take the advantages of lower tax rates when the individual income of the partners differs significantly^[162][c]
• Employer-provided health insurance coverage for a same-sex partner incurred federal income tax^[162]
• Higher health costs associated with lack of insurance and preventive care: 20% of same-sex couples had a member who was uninsured compared to 10% of married opposite-sex couples^[163]
• Inability to protect jointly owned home from loss due to costs of potential medical catastrophe^[163]
• Inability of a U.S. citizen to
  sponsor a same-sex spouse for citizenship^[163]

Some 7,400 companies were offering spousal benefits to same-sex couples as of 2008. In states that recognized same-sex marriages, same-sex couples could continue to receive those same benefits only if they married.[165] Only 18% of private employers offered domestic partner health care benefits.^[163]

Same-sex couples face the same financial constraints of legal marriage as opposite-sex married couples, including the marriage penalty in taxation.^[162] While social service providers usually do not count one partner's assets toward the income means test for welfare and disability assistance for the other partner, a legally married couple's joint assets are normally used in calculating whether a married individual qualifies for assistance.^[162]

A 2019 study found an increase in employment among same-sex couples after the legalization of same-sex marriage. The author of the study provided additional evidence suggesting that this change in employment was driven by a decline in discrimination.^[166]

Economic impact on the state and federal governments

The 2004 Congressional Budget Office study, working from an assumption "that about 0.6 percent of adults would enter into same-sex marriages if they had the opportunity" (an assumption in which they admitted "significant uncertainty") estimated that legalizing same-sex marriage throughout the United States "would improve the budget's bottom line to a small extent: by less than $1 billion in each of the next 10 years". This result reflects an increase in net government revenues (increased income taxes due to marriage penalties more than offsetting decreased tax revenues arising from postponed estate taxes). Marriage recognition would increase the government expenses for Social Security and Federal Employee Health Benefits but that increase would be more than made up for by decreased expenses for Medicaid, Medicare, and Supplemental Security Income.^[162]

According to a study published in May 2020 by the

Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy, the legalization of same-sex marriage boosted state and local economies by an estimated 3.8 billion dollars. The Williams Institute estimated that the 300,000 same-sex couples who married in the U.S. since 2015 generated about $3.2 billion for local and state economies. In addition, traveling wedding guests spent an additional $544 million, and about 45,000 jobs were supported by same-sex weddings. $244 million was generated in state and local taxes.^[167][168]

Mental health

Based in part on research that has been conducted on the adverse effects of stigmatization of gays and lesbians, numerous prominent social science organizations have issued position statements supporting same-sex marriage and opposing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation; these organizations include the American Psychoanalytic Association and the American Psychological Association.^[169]

Several psychological studies have shown that an increase in exposure to negative conversations, media messages, and negative reactions among peers about same-sex marriage creates a harmful environment for LGBT people that may affect their health and well-being, especially among its younger members.^{[170][171][172]}

One study surveyed more than 1,500 lesbian, gay and bisexual adults across the nation and found that respondents from the 25 states that have outlawed same-sex marriage had the highest reports of "minority stress"—the chronic social stress that results from minority-group stigmatization—as well as general psychological distress. According to the study, the negative campaigning that comes with a ban is directly responsible for the increased stress. Past research has shown that minority stress is linked to health risks such as risky sexual behavior and substance abuse.^[173]

Two other studies examined personal reports from LGBT adults and their families living in Memphis, Tennessee, immediately after a successful 2006 ballot campaign banned same-sex marriage. Most respondents reported feeling alienated from their communities. The studies also found that families experienced a kind of secondary minority stress, says Jennifer Arm, a counseling graduate student at the University of Memphis.^[174]

At the

Perry v. Schwarzenegger trial, expert witness Ilan Meyer testified that the mental health outcomes for gays and lesbians would improve if laws such as Proposition 8 did not exist because "when people are exposed to more stress...they are more likely to get sick..." and that particular situation is consistent with laws that say to gay people "you are not welcome here, your relationships are not valued." Such laws have "significant power", he said.^[175]

Physical health

In 2009, a pair of economists at Emory University tied the passage of state bans on same-sex marriage in the US to an increase in the rates of HIV/AIDS infection.^[176][177] The study linked the passage of same-sex marriage ban in a state to an increase in the annual HIV rate within that state of roughly 4 cases per 100,000 population.

A study by the

Columbia Mailman School of Public Health found that gay men in Massachusetts visited health clinics significantly less often following the legalization of same-sex marriage in that state.^[178]

In popular culture

The Fox sitcom

Married...with Children, Roseanne ("December Bride"), Glee, Friends ("The One with the Lesbian Wedding"), Brooklyn Nine-Nine, Modern Family, The Simpsons ("There's Something About Marrying"), The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Brothers & Sisters, Grey's Anatomy, Will & Grace, Conan, Steven Universe, Shameless, The Fosters, etc.^[180][181]

The 22nd season premier of the PBS animated-show Arthur featured the marriage of teacher Mr. Ratburn and his male partner.^[182] Alabama's public television channel refused to air the episode.^[183]

Marriage statistics

There is no complete data on the number of same-sex marriages conducted in the United States. Marriages and divorces are recorded by states, counties, and territories, plus New York City and the District of Columbia, but not by the

Federal Government. States such as Oregon do not distinguish between opposite-sex and same-sex marriages in their official records. The legal records on marriage and divorce belong to the states.^[184] In August 2016, the Treasury Department estimated the number of same-sex marriages by linking the tax returns of same-sex couples who had filed jointly in 2014 with their Social Security records. (Although this method excluded couples who file singly, these are small in number; of all married couples who file taxes, 97.5% file jointly.) This research showed that in 2014 there were about 183,280 married same-sex couples in the country, or "roughly a third of 1 percent of all marriages" according to The New York Times.^[185] Numbers from 2015 showed a large increase to 250,450 marriages.^[186] According to Census Bureau data, heterosexual marriages still accounted for about 98 percent of marriages for people under 35 in 2021.^[187]

According to the statistics, female couples were four times more likely to have children than male couples. Additionally, male couples earned a pretax average of $165,960 per year, while lesbian couples earned $118,415 and straight couples earned $115,210. The highest rates of female same-sex marriage were found in

Washington D.C., New York City, Seattle and Fort Lauderdale.^[186]

The United States Census Bureau has collected data on unmarried same-sex households since 2005. Since 2013 following United States v. Windsor, the Bureau began recording married same-sex households in its Same-Sex Couples report. It recorded about 252,000 same-sex spouses in 2013; 335,000 in 2014; 425,000 in 2015; 487,000 in 2016; 555,000 in 2017; 593,000 in 2018. In 2018, the states of California, Texas and New York had the highest total number of same-sex households, whereas Wyoming, Vermont, South Dakota and Connecticut had the most married same-sex households in comparison to unmarried households (92.4% of Wyoming same-sex households were married, followed by Vermont at 79.3%, South Dakota at 77.8% and Connecticut at 70.7%). Nationally, 59.5% of cohabiting same-sex couples were married.^[188]

The Population Reference Bureau reported that by October 2015 approximately 486,000 same-sex marriages had taken place in the United States. It estimated that 45% of all same-sex couples in the country were married at that time.^[189]

According to

Gallup, the percent of cohabiting same-sex couples who are married rose from 38% in 2015 to 49% in 2016 and to 61% in 2017.^[190]

Case law

See also: Same-sex marriage legislation in the United States § Lawsuits seeking to overturn statutory bans

United States federal and state case law regarding same-sex marriage:

1970s

• Anonymous v. Anonymous, 67 Misc.2d 982 (N.Y. 1971). The law makes no provision for a "marriage" between persons of the same sex.
• Baker v. Nelson, 191 N.W.2d 185 (Minn. 1971). Upholds a Minnesota law defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. (Overruled by Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015; see below)
• Jones v. Hallahan, 501 S.W.2d 588 (Ky. 1973). Upholds the denial of a marriage license to two women in Kentucky based on dictionary definitions of marriage, despite the fact that state statutes do not specify the gender of marriage partners.^[191]
• Frances B. v. Mark B., 78 Misc.2d 112 (1974). Marriage is and always has been a contract between a man and a woman.
• Singer v. Hara
  , 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974). The historical definition of marriage is between one man and one woman, and same-sex couples are inherently ineligible to marry. This ban does not constitute sex discrimination.

1980s

• Adams v. Howerton, 673 F.2d 1036 (9th Cir. 1982), cert. denied, 458 U.S. 1111. A same-sex marriage does not make one a "spouse" under the Immigration and Nationality Act.
• De Santo v. Barnsley, 476 A.2d 952 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1984). Same-sex couples cannot divorce because they cannot form a common law marriage.^[192]

1990s

• In re Estate of Cooper, 149 Misc.2d 282 (Sur. Ct. Kings Co. 1990). The state has a compelling interest in fostering the traditional institution of marriage and prohibiting same-sex marriage.
• constitutional amendment allowing the State Legislature to restrict marriage to different-sex couples and the federal Defense of Marriage Act
  .
• United States Constitution
  .
• Storrs v. Holcomb, 645 N.Y.S.2d 286 (App. Div. 1996). New York does not recognize or authorize same-sex marriage. Overturned in part by Martinez v. County of Monroe in 2008.
• In re Estate of Hall, 707 N.E.2d 201, 206 (Ill. App. Ct. 1998). Illinois does not recognize a same-sex marriage. The petitioner's claim to be in a same-sex marriage was not in a marriage recognized by law.
• Baker v. Vermont, 170 Vt. 194; 744 A.2d 864 (Vt. 1999). The Common Benefits Clause of the Constitution of Vermont requires that same-sex couples be granted the same legal rights as married persons, though it need not be called marriage.

2000s

• Frandsen v. County of Brevard, 828 So. 2d 757 (Fla. 2001). The Florida Constitution will not be construed to recognize same-sex marriage; sex classifications not subject to strict scrutiny under the Constitution.
• Burns v. Burns, 560 S.E.2d 47 (Ga. Ct. App. 2002). Marriage is the union of one man and one woman.
• In re Estate of Gardiner, 42 P.3d 120 (Kan. 2002). A post-operative male-to-female transsexual is not a woman within the meaning of the statutes and cannot validly marry a man.
• Rosengarten v. Downes, 806 A.2d 1066 (Conn. Ct. App. 2002). Connecticut will not dissolve a Vermont civil union.
• Standhardt v. Superior Court ex rel. County of Maricopa, 77 P.3d 451 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2003). The Constitution of Arizona does not provide the right to same-sex marriage.
• Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health, 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass. 2003). The denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples violated provisions of the Massachusetts State Constitution
  guaranteeing individual liberty and equality, and it was not rationally related to a legitimate state interest.
• Morrison v. Sadler, 821 N.E.2d 15 (Ind. Super. Ct. 2005). Indiana's Defense of Marriage Act is valid.
• Langan v. St. Vincent's Hospital, 802 N.Y.S.2d 476 (App. Div. 2005). For the purposes of New York's wrongful death statute, the survivor partner from a Vermont civil union lacks standing as a "spouse".
• Initiative Measure 416 does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, was not a bill of attainder, and does not violate the First Amendment.^[193]
• Lewis v. Harris, 908 A.2d 196 (N.J. 2006). Prohibiting same-sex marriage does not violate the New Jersey Constitution, but the state must extend all the rights and responsibilities of marriage to same-sex couples. The New Jersey Legislature had 180 days to amend the marriage laws or create a "parallel structure".
• Andersen v. King County, 138 P.3d 963 (Wash. 2006). Washington's Defense of Marriage Act does not violate the State Constitution.
• Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1 (N.Y. 2006). The
  New York Constitution does not require that marriage rights be extended to same-sex couples.^[194]
• Conaway v. Deane, 932 A.2d 571 (Md. 2007). Upholds a Maryland law defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman.
• Martinez v. County of Monroe, 850 N.Y.S.2d 740 (App. Div. 2008). Because New York recognizes the marriages of opposite-sex couples from other jurisdictions, it must do the same for same-sex couples.^[195]
• In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008). Limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples is invalid under the equal protection clause of the California Constitution. Full marriage rights, not merely domestic partnership, must be offered to same-sex couples.^[196]
• Kerrigan v. Commissioner of Public Health, 957 A.2d 407 (Conn. 2008). The availability of civil unions but not marriage to same-sex partners is a violation of the equality and liberty provisions of the Connecticut Constitution.
• Proposition 8 was validly adopted, and marriages contracted before its adoption remain valid.^[197]
• Iowa Constitution
  . Equal protection requires full marriage, rather than civil unions or some other substitute, for same-sex couples.

2010s

Challenges to DOMA Section 3

• Gill v. Office of Personnel Management (2009–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court. The First Circuit Court of Appeals affirms that ruling and stays implementation pending appeal. Windsor finds Section 3 unconstitutional and appeal of Gill is denied by the Supreme Court.
• Massachusetts v. United States Department of Health and Human Services (2009–2013). Decided alongside Gill with the same outcome.
• Golinski v. Office of Personnel Management (2010–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court, which determines that sexual orientation is a quasi-suspect classification requiring the court to apply intermediate scrutiny, that is, to determine whether Section 3 relates to an important government interest. On appeal, the case is held in abeyance pending the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Windsor, which settles the issues raised in Golinski, the appeal of which to the Supreme Court is then denied.
• United States v. Windsor (2010–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirms that ruling, as does the U.S. Supreme Court. The U.S. Government began implementing the decision the same week.^[198]

California Proposition 8

• Hollingsworth v. Perry (2009–2013). California's Proposition 8, a voter-endorsed constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court in Perry v. Schwarzenegger. The proposition's backers appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which upholds the district court's finding of unconstitutionality in Perry v. Brown. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the proposition's backers lacked standing to appeal and left the district court ruling intact.^[199]

Same-sex marriage rights

• Supreme Court of Wyoming grants a divorce to two women who married in Canada, but says its decision does not apply "in any context other than divorce".^[200]
• Port v. Cowan (2010–2012). Maryland must recognize valid out-of-state same-sex marriages under doctrine of comity.^[201]
• Garden State Equality v. Dow (2011–2013), New Jersey's civil unions violate due process guarantees; denying same-sex marriage ruled unconstitutional in state superior court. The N.J. Supreme Court refuses to stay the ruling and the state defendants drop their appeal.
• Griego v. Oliver, 316 P.3d 865 (N.M. 2013). The New Mexico Supreme Court rules that the State Constitution
  requires marriage rights to be extended to same-sex couples.
• Kitchen v. Herbert, 961 F. Supp. 2d 1181 (2013). U.S. district court rules Utah's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals upholds that ruling on June 25, 2014. All parties support review by the U.S. Supreme Court, and that court denied review on October 6.^[202]
• Whitewood v. Wolf (Pennsylvania). On May 20, 2014, Judge John E. Jones III rules that Pennsylvania's same-sex marriage ban is unconstitutional.^[203]
• Rummell v. Kitzhaber (Oregon). On May 19, 2014, district judge Michael J. McShane declares Oregon's same-sex marriage ban unconstitutional.^[204]
• Bostic v. Schaefer (Virginia). The Fourth Circuit on July 28, 2014, in a 2–1 decision, affirms a district court ruling that Virginia's denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples is unconstitutional.^[205] The Supreme Court denied review on October 6.^[202]
• Baskin v. Bogan (Indiana) and Wolf v. Walker (Wisconsin). The Seventh Circuit consolidated these cases and on September 4, 2014, upheld two district court rulings that had found Indiana's and Wisconsin's bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional.^[206] The U.S. Supreme Court denied review on October 6.^[202]
• Bishop v. Smith (Oklahoma). On July 18, 2014, the Tenth Circuit upholds the district court ruling that Oklahoma's ban on same-sex marriage is unconstitutional.^[207] The Supreme Court denied review on October 6.^[202]
• Barrier v. Vasterling (Missouri). State circuit judge J. Dale Youngs rules on October 3, 2014, that Missouri's refusal to recognize same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions violates the plaintiff same-sex couples' right to equal protection under both the state and federal constitutions.^[208]
• Caspar v. Snyder (Michigan). On January 15, 2015, U.S. district judge Mark A. Goldsmith ruled that the state must recognize the validity of "window marriages" established on March 21 and 22, 2014, before the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stayed a district court ruling in DeBoer v. Snyder that found Michigan's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, despite the fact that DeBoer was later reversed.^[209] The state chose not to appeal.^[210]
• 14th Amendment
  . (Overturned Baker v. Nelson)

Public opinion

Main article: Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States

Americans began to be polled occasionally on the topic in the 1980s and more regularly in the 1990s. From 1988 to 2009, support for same-sex marriage increased between 1% and 1.5% per year. In the 2010s, it increased more quickly.^[212]

Gallup found that nationwide public support reached 50% in May 2011,^[6] 60% in May 2015,^[7] and 70% in May 2021.^[8]

The Pew Research Center similarly found 40% in 2010, 50% in 2013 and 61% in 2019.^[213]

As of 2016,^[update] 83% of Americans aged 18–29 supported same-sex marriage.^[214]

As of 2021,^[update] there is majority support for same-sex marriage in 47 states, ranging from 50% in South Carolina to 85% in Massachusetts. There is plurality support in Alabama, with 49% supporting and 47% opposing. Only Mississippi and Arkansas have majority opposition to same-sex marriage; in Mississippi, 55% oppose and 44% support, while in Arkansas, 52% oppose and 47% support same-sex marriage.^[211]

As of 2018,^[update] 60% of Americans said they would not mind if their child married someone of the same gender.^[215]

Annual polling conducted by

Gallup each May in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 has found support for same-sex marriage stable, with two-thirds of Americans indicating that same-sex marriage should be recognized as valid under law (a range of 63% to 67% was recorded).^{[216][217][218]} In 2022, a new record high of 71% of respondents stated that same-sex marriage should be legally recognized as valid under the law.^[219]

A Grinnell College National Poll in September 2022 indicated that 74% of Americans thought that same-sex marriage should be a guaranteed right, 13% thought it should be left to elected officials, and 13% were unsure.[220]

See also

• Divorce of same-sex couples
• History of same-sex marriage in the United States
• LGBT employment discrimination in the United States
• LGBT rights in the United States
• Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas
• Same-sex unions and military policy#United States
• Status of same-sex marriage
• Timeline of same-sex marriage in the United States
• Timeline of same-sex marriage

Legislation

• Domestic partnership in the United States
• Federal Marriage Amendment
• Respect for Marriage Act
• Former U.S. state constitutional amendments banning same-sex unions
• Same-sex marriage law in the United States by state
• Same-sex marriage legislation in the United States
• Same-sex marriage status in the United States by state
• Same-sex unions in the United States

Miscellaneous

• A Union in Wait (documentary film)

Notes

1. Robicheaux v. Caldwell, who sought Louisiana's recognition of their out-of-state marriages, argued only on the basis of equal protection and due process. One of the Louisiana statutes they challenged made clear the state's assertion of its right to deny recognition to the legal act of another state: "A purported marriage between persons of the same sex violates a strong public policy of the state of Louisiana". (emphasis added).^[25]
2. ^ Other cases that sought review by the U.S. Supreme Court were Golinski v. Office of Personnel Management, Gill v. Office of Personnel Management, Massachusetts v. United States Department of Health and Human Services, and Pedersen v. Office of Personnel Management.
3. ^ In early 2013, the IRS recognized the community property and income of same-sex partners in community property states.^[164]

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External links

• US Supreme Court declares same-sex marriage legal at Wikinews
• American Courts on Marriage: Is Marriage Discriminatory? 1998–2008, Joshua Baker, Institute for Marriage and Public Policy, May 2008.
• Gay rights in the US, state by state The Guardian
• LA Weekly feature, "California Supreme Court Set to Consider Gay Marriage," Feb. 2008 by Matthew Fleischer at the Wayback Machine (archived April 17, 2008)
• PollingReport.com Law and Civil Rights compendium
• Same-sex marriage in the United States at
  Curlie
• Timeline: Gay marriage, Los Angeles Times, October 6, 2014
• The Shifting Landscape of State Same-Sex Marriage Laws as of February 26, 2014 by the Bloomberg Visual Data Center showing various charts with respect to the development of same-sex marriage in the United States