Sampi
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Sampi (modern: ϡ; ancient shapes: , ) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It was used as an addition to the classical 24-letter alphabet in some eastern Ionic dialects of ancient Greek in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, to denote some type of a sibilant sound, probably [ss] or [ts], and was abandoned when the sound disappeared from Greek.
It later remained in use as a numeral symbol for 900 in the alphabetic ("
Its current name, sampi, originally probably meant "san pi", i.e. "like a pi", and is also of medieval origin. The letter's original name in antiquity is not known. It has been proposed that sampi was a continuation of the archaic letter san, which was originally shaped like an M and denoted the sound [s] in some other dialects. Besides san, names that have been proposed for sampi include parakyisma and angma, while other historically attested terms for it are enacosis, sincope, and o charaktir.
Alphabetic sampi
As an alphabetic letter denoting a sibilant sound, sampi (shaped
Sampi occurs in positions where other dialects, including written Ionic, normally have double sigma (σσ), i.e. a long /ss/ sound. Some other dialects, particularly Attic Greek, have ττ (long /tt/) in the same words (e.g. θάλασσα vs. θάλαττα 'sea', or τέσσαρες vs. τέτταρες 'four'). The sounds in question are all reflexes of the proto-Greek consonant clusters *[kj], *[kʰj], *[tj], *[tʰj], or *[tw]. It is therefore believed that the local letter sampi was used to denote some kind of intermediate sound during the phonetic change from the earlier plosive clusters towards the later /s/ sound, possibly an affricate /ts/, forming a triplet with the Greek letters for /ks/ and /ps/.[4][5]
Among the earliest known uses of sampi in this function is an abecedarium from Samos dated to the mid-7th century BC. This early attestation already bears witness to its alphabetic position behind omega (i.e. not the position of san), and it shows that its invention cannot have been much later than that of omega itself.[2][3]
The first known use of alphabetic sampi in writing native Greek words is an inscription found on a silver plate in Ephesus, which has the words "τέͳαρες" ("four") and "τεͳαράϙοντα" ("forty") spelled with sampi (cf. normal spelling Ionic "τέσσαρες/τεσσαράκοντα" vs. Attic τέτταρες/τετταράκοντα). It can be dated between the late 7th century and mid 6th century BC.[6][7] An inscription from Halicarnassus[8] has the names "Ἁλικαρναͳέ[ω]ν" ("of the Halicarnassians") and the personal names "Ὀαͳαͳιος" and "Π[α]νυάͳιος". All of these names appear to be of non-Greek, local origin, i.e. Carian.[9] On a late 6th century bronze plate from Miletus dedicated to the sanctuary of Athena at Assesos, the spelling "τῇ Ἀθηνάηι τῇ Ἀͳησίηι" ("to Athena of Assessos") has been identified.[2][10] This is currently the first known instance of alphabetic sampi in Miletus itself, commonly assumed to be the birthplace of the numeral system and thus of the later numeric use of sampi.
It has been suggested that there may be an isolated example of the use of alphabetic sampi in Athens. In a famous painted
Pamphylian sampi
A letter similar to Ionian sampi, but of unknown historical relation with it, existed in
letter stood for some type of sibilant reflecting Proto-Greek */ktj/.Numeric sampi
In the alphabetic
From this, it has been concluded that the system must have been invented at a time and place when digamma and koppa were still either in use or at least still remembered as parts of the alphabetic sequence, whereas san had either already been forgotten, or at least was no longer remembered with its original alphabetic position. In the latter case, according to a much debated view, sampi itself may in fact have been regarded as being san, but with a new position in the alphabet.
The dating of the emergence of this system, and with it of numeric sampi, has been the object of much discussion. At the end of the 19th century, authors such as Thompson[16] placed its full development only in the 3rd century BC. Jeffery[1] states that the system as a whole can be traced much further back, into the 6th century BC. An early, though isolated, instance of apparent use of alphabetic Milesian numerals in Athens occurs on a stone inscribed with several columns of two-digit numerals, of unknown meaning, dated from the middle of the 5th century BC.[17][18]
While the emergence of the system as a whole has thus been given a much earlier dating than was often assumed earlier, actual occurrences of the letter sampi in this context have as yet not been found in any early examples. According to Threatte, the earliest known use of numeric sampi in a stone inscription occurs in an inscription in Magnesia from the 2nd century BC, in a phrase denoting a sum of money ("δραχ(μὰς) ϡʹ)[19] but the exact numeric meaning of this example is disputed.[12] In Athens, the first attestation is only from the beginning of the 2nd century AD, again in an inscription naming sums of money.[20][21]
Earlier than the attestations in the full function as a numeral are a few instances where sampi was used in Athens as a mark to enumerate sequences of things in a set, along with the 24 other letters of the alphabet, without implying a specific decimal numeral value. For instance, there is a set of 25 metal tokens, each stamped with one of the letters from alpha to sampi, which are dated to the 4th century BC and were probably used as identification marks for judges in the courts of the Athenian democracy.[6][22]
In
At an early stage in the papyri, the numeral sampi was used not only for 900, but, somewhat confusingly, also as a multiplicator for 1000, since a way of marking thousands and their multiples was not yet otherwise provided by the alphabetic system. Writing an alpha over sampi ( or, in a ligature, ) meant "1×1000", a theta over sampi () meant "9×1000", and so on. In the examples cited by Gardthausen, a slightly modified shape of sampi, with a shorter right stem (), is used.[23] This system was later simplified into one where the thousands operator was marked just as a small stroke to the left of the letter (͵α = 1000).
Glyph development
In early stone inscriptions, the shape of sampi, both alphabetic and numeric, is . Square-topped shapes, with the middle vertical stroke either of equal length with the outer ones or longer , are also found in early papyri. This form fits the earliest attested verbal description of the shape of sampi as a numeral sign in the ancient literature, which occurs in a remark in the works of the 2nd-century AD physician Galen. Commenting on the use of certain obscure abbreviations found in earlier manuscripts of Hippocrates, Galen says that one of them "looks like the way some people write the sign for 900", and describes this as "the shape of the letter Π with a vertical line in the middle" ("ὁ τοῦ π γραμμάτος χαρακτὴρ ἔχων ὀρθίαν μέσην γραμμὴν, ὡς ἔνιοι γράφουσι τῶν ἐννεακοσίων χαρακτῆρα").[24]
From the time of the earliest papyri, the square-topped forms of handwritten sampi alternate with variants where the top is rounded (, ) or pointed (, ).[25][26] The rounded form also occurs in stone inscriptions in the Roman era.[21] In the late Roman period, the arrow-shaped or rounded forms are often written with a loop connecting the two lines at the right, leading to the "ace-of-spades" form , or to . These forms, in turn, occasionally have another decorative stroke added on the left (). It can be found attached in several different ways, from the top () or the bottom ().[26] From these shapes, finally, the modern form of sampi emerges, beginning in the 9th century, with the two straight lines becoming more or less parallel (, , ).
In medieval western manuscripts describing the Greek alphabet, the arrowhead form is sometimes rendered as .[27]
Origins
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, many authors have assumed that sampi was essentially a historical continuation of the archaic letter
The hypothetical identification between san and sampi is based on a number of considerations. One is the similarity of the sounds represented by both. San represented either simple [s] or some other, divergent phonetic realization of the common Greek /s/ phoneme. Suggestions for its original sound value have included [ts],[4] [z],[28] and [ʃ].[29] The second reason for the assumption is the systematicity in the development of the letter inventory: there were three archaic letters that dropped out of use in alphabetic writing (digamma/wau, koppa, and san), and three extra-alphabetic letters were adopted for the Milesian numeral system, two of them obviously identical with the archaic digamma and koppa; hence, it is easy to assume that the third in the set had the same history. Objections to this account have been related to the fact that sampi did not assume the same position san had had, and to the lack of any obvious relation between the shapes of the two letters and the lack of any intermediate forms linking the two uses.
Among older authorities, Gardthausen[30] and Thompson[31] took the identity between san and sampi for granted. Foat, in a skeptical reassessment of the evidence, came to the conclusion that it was a plausible hypothesis but unprovable.[6][9] The discussion has continued until the present, while a steady trickle of new archaeological discoveries regarding the relative dating of the various events involved (i.e. the original emergence of the alphabet, the loss of archaic san, the emergence of alphabetic sampi, and the emergence of the numeral system) have continued to affect the data base on which it is founded.
A part of the discussion about the identity of san and sampi has revolved around a difficult and probably corrupted piece of philological commentary by an anonymous
κοππατίας ἵππους ἐκάλουν οἷς ἐγκεχάρακτο τὸ κ[?] στοιχεῖον, ὡς σαμφόρας τοὺς ἐγκεχαραγμένους τὸ σ. τὸ γὰρ σ[?] κατὰ[?] τὸ ϻ[?] χαρασσόμενον ϻὰν[?] ἔλεγον. αἱ δὲ χαράξεις αὗται καὶ μέχρι τοῦ νῦν σῴζονται ἐπὶ τοῖς ἵπποις. συνεζευγμένου δὲ τοῦ κ[?] καὶ σ[?] τὸ σχῆμα τοῦ ἐνακόσιοι[?] ἀριθμοῦ δύναται νοεῖσθαι, οὗ προηγεῖται τὸ κόππα[?]· καὶ παρὰ γραμματικοῖς οὕτω διδάσκεται, καὶ καλεῖται κόππα ἐνενήκοντα.[32] |
"Koppatias" were called horses that were branded with the letter κ[?], just as "Samphoras" were those branded with σ[?]. For the "σ"[?] written like [or: together with?] ϻ[?] was called san[?]. These brandings can still be found on horses today. And from a "κ"[?] joined together with "σ"[?], one can see how the number sign for 900[?] is derived, which is preceded by koppa[?]. This is also taught by the grammarians, and the "90" is called "koppa". |
There is no agreement on what was originally meant by this passage.
An alternative hypothesis to that of the historical identity between san and sampi is that Ionian sampi may have been a loan from the neighbouring
While the origin of sampi continues to be debated, the identity between the alphabetic Ionian sampi (/ss/) and the numeral for 900 has rarely been in doubt, although in the older literature it was sometimes mentioned only tentatively, Today, the link between alphabetic and numeral sampi is universally accepted.
Names
Despite all uncertainties, authors who subscribe to the hypothesis of a historical link between ancient san and sampi also often continue to use the name san for the latter. Benedict Einarson hypothesizes that it was in fact called *ssan, with the special quality of the sibilant sound it had as Ionian . This opinion has been rejected as phonologically impossible by Soldati,[26] who points out that the /ss/ sound only ever occurred in the middle of words and therefore could not have been used in the beginning of its own name.
As for the name sampi itself, it is generally agreed today that it is of late origin and not the original name of the character in either its ancient alphabetic or its numeral function. Babiniotis describes it as "medieval",[37] while Jannaris places its emergence "after the thirteenth century".[36] However, the precise time of its emergence in Greek is not documented.
The name is already attested in manuscript copies of an
The first reference to the name sampi in the western literature occurs in a 17th-century work,
The etymology of sampi has given rise to much speculation. The only element all authors agree on is that the -pi refers to the letter π, but about the rest accounts differ depending on each author's stance on the question of the historical identity between sampi and san.
According to the original suggestion by Scaliger, san-pi means "written like a san and a pi together". Here, "san" refers not to the archaic letter san (i.e. Ϻ) itself, but to "san" as a mere synonym of "sigma", referring to the outer curve of the modern ϡ as resembling an inverted
In the absence of a proper name, there are indications that various generic terms were used in Byzantine times to refer to the sign. Thus, the 15th-century Greek mathematician
In some early medieval Latin documents from western Europe, there are descriptions of the contemporary Greek numeral system which imply that sampi was known simply by the Greek word for its numeric value, ἐννεακόσια (enneakosia, "nine hundred"). Thus, in De loquela per gestum digitorum, a didactic text about arithmetics attributed to the
A curious name for sampi that occurs in one Greek source is "παρακύϊσμα" (parakyisma). It occurs in a scholion to Dionysius Thrax,[54] where the three numerals are referred to as "τὸ δίγαμμα καὶ τὸ κόππα καὶ τό καλούμενον παρακύϊσμα". The obscure word ("… the so-called parakyisma") literally means "a spurious pregnancy", from "παρα-" and the verb "κυέω" "to be pregnant". The term has been used and accepted as possibly authentic by Jannaris,[36] Uhlhorn[55] and again by Soldati.[26] While Jannaris hypothesizes that it was meant to evoke the oblique, reclining shape of the character, Soldati suggests it was meant to evoke its status as an irregular, out-of-place addition ("un'utile superfetazione"). Einarson, however, argues that the word is probably the product of textual corruption during transmission in the Byzantine period.[42] He suggests that the original reading was similar to that used by Rabdas, "ὁ καλούμενος χαρακτήρ" ("the so-called character"). Another contemporary cover term for the extra-alphabetic numerals would have been "παράσημον" (parasēmon, lit. "extra sign"). A redactor could have written the consonant letters "π-σ-μ" of "παράσημον" over the letters "χ-κτ-ρ" of "χαρακτήρ", as both words happen to share their remaining intermediate letters. The result, mixed together from letters of both words, could have been misread in the next step as "παρακυησμ", and hence, "παρακύϊσμα".
An entirely new proposal has been made by A. Willi, who suggests that the original name of the letter in ancient Greek was angma (ἄγμα).
In other scripts
In the
The Greek script was also adapted in Hellenistic times to write the
During the first millennium AD, several neighbouring languages whose alphabets were wholly or partly derived from the Greek adopted the structure of the Greek numeral system, and with it, some version or local replacement of sampi.
In
The Gothic alphabet adopted sampi in its Roman era form of an upwards-pointing arrow (, 𐍊)[61]
In the
In
Modern use
Together with the other elements of the Greek numeral system, sampi is occasionally still used in Greek today. However, since the system is typically used only to enumerate items in relatively small sets, such as the chapters of a book or the names of rulers in a dynasty, the signs for the higher tens and hundreds, including sampi, are much less frequently found in practice than the lower letters for 1 to 10. One of the few domains where higher numbers including thousands and hundreds are still expressed in the old system in Greece with some regularity is the field of law, because until 1914 laws were numbered in this way. For instance, one law which happens to have sampi in its name and is still in force and relatively often referred to is "Νόμος ͵ΓϠΝʹ/1911" (i.e. Law Number 3950 of 1911), "Περί της εκ των αυτοκινήτων ποινικής και αστικής ευθύνης" ("About penal and civil responsibility arising from the use of automobiles").[63] However, in informal practice, the letter sampi is often replaced in such instances by a lowercase or uppercase π.
Typography
With the advent of modern printing in the western
In its modern use as a numeral (as with the other two episema,
The epigraphic ancient Ionian sampi is not normally rendered with the modern numeral character in print. In specialized
Computer encoding
Several codepoints for the encoding of sampi and its variants have been included in Unicode. As they were adopted successively in different versions of Unicode, their coverage in current computer fonts and operating systems is inconsistent as of 2010. U+03E0 ("Greek letter Sampi") was present from version 1.1 (1993) and was originally meant to show the normal modern numeral glyph. The uppercase/lowercase contrast was introduced with version 3.0 (1999).[65][71] As the existing code point had been technically defined as an uppercase character, the new addition was declared lowercase (U+03E1, "Greek small letter Sampi"). This has led to some inconsistency between fonts,[72] because the glyph that was present at U+03E0 in older fonts is now usually found at U+03E1 in newer ones, while U+03E0 may have a typographically uncommon capital glyph.
New, separate codepoints for ancient epigraphic sampi, also in an uppercase and lowercase variant, were proposed in 2005,[73] and included in the standard with version 5.1 (2008).[71] They are meant to cover both the Ionian and Pamphylian , with the Ionian character serving as the reference glyph. As of 2010, these characters are not yet supported by most current Greek fonts.[74] The Gothic "900" symbol was encoded in version 3.1 (2001), and Coptic sampi in version 4.1 (2005). Codepoints for the related Greek characters san and Bactrian "sho" were added in version 4.0 (2003).
Prior to Unicode, support for sampi in electronic encoding was marginal. No common 8-bit
References
- ^ a b c d Jeffery, Lilian H. (1961). The local scripts of archaic Greece. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 38–39.
- ^ a b c d Wachter, R. (1998). "Eine Weihung an Athena von Assesos". Epigraphica Anatolica. 30: 1–8.
- ^ S2CID 170573480.
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- ^ S2CID 164111611.
- ^ "Poinikastas, Ephesos number 1335".
- ^ British Museum No. 886, "PHI Greek Inscriptions – Halikarnassos 1".
- ^ S2CID 163644187.
- ISBN 9783110189667.
- S2CID 191375914.
- ^ a b Threatte, Leslie (1980). The grammar of Attic inscriptions: phonology. Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 24.
- ^ Brixhe, Claude (1976). Le Dialecte grec de Pamphylie: Documents et grammaire. Paris. pp. 7–9.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Pamphylian digamma".
- ^ "PHI Greek Inscriptions – Brixhe, Dial.gr.Pamph.1".
- ^ Thompson, Handbook, p. 114.
- ^ "PHI Greek Inscriptions – IG I³ 1387"., also known as IG I² 760.
- ^ Schärlig, Alain (2001). Compter avec des cailloux: le calcul élémentair sur l'abaque chez les anciens Grecs. Lausanne: Presses polytechniques et universitaires Romandes. p. 95.
- ^ "PHI Greek Inscriptions – Magnesia 4"., also known as Syll³ 695.b.
- ^ "PHI Greek Insriptions – IG II² 2776".
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- JSTOR 147161.
- ^ Gardthausen, Viktor (1913). Griechische Palaeographie. Vol. 2: Die Schrift, Unterschriften und Chronologie im Altertum und im byzantinischen Mittelalter. Leipzig: Veit. pp. 368–370.
- ^ Galen (1821–1823). Galenis opera omnia, Vol. 17a. Leipzig: Car. Cnobloch. p. 525.
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- S2CID 162337167.
- ^ S2CID 171007977.
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- ^ a b Veder, William R. (1999). Utrum in alterum abiturum erat?: a study of the beginnings of text transmission in Church Slavic. Bloomington: Slavica. p. 177.
- ^ Veder, Utrum in alterum, p.133f.
- ^ Veder, Utrum in alterum, p.184.
- ^ Thus Keil, Halikarnassische Inschrift, p.265; also Foat, Tsade and Sampi, p.344, and Willi, Cows, houses, hooks, p.420.
- ^ S2CID 161310875.
- ^ Montfaucon, Bernard de (1708). Palaeographia Graeca. Paris: Guerin, Boudot & Robustel. p. 132.; cited in Soldati, Τὸ λεγόμενο παρακύϊσμα, p. 210.
- ^ Scaliger, Joseph (1658). Animadversiones in chronologia Eusebii. Amsterdam: Janssonius. pp. 115–116.
- ^ Thompson, Handbook, p. 104.
- ^ Beda [Venerabilis]. "De loquela per gestum digitorum". In Migne, J.P. (ed.). Opera omnia, vol. 1. Paris. p. 697.
- ^ Zürich, Central Library, Codex Rh.131. The same manuscript is referred to as "Alphabet von Sankt Gallen" by Victor Gardthausen, Griechische Palaeographie, p. 368.
- ^ von Wyss, Paul Friedrich (1850). Alamannische Formeln und Briefe aus dem Neunten Jahrhundert. Zürich. p. 31.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Gardthausen, Griechische Palaeographie, p.260.
- ^ The Bodleian quarterly record 3 (1923), p.96
- ^ Lauth, Franz Joseph (1857). Das germanische Runen-Fudark, aus den Quellen kritisch erschlossen. München: Lauth. p. 17.
Niacusin.
- ^ Atto [of Vercelli] (1884). Migne, J. P. (ed.). Attonis Vercellensis opera omnia. Paris: Garnier. p. 13.
- ^ Hofman, Rijcklof (1996). The Sankt Gall Priscan Commentary, Part 1, Vol 2. Münster: Nodus. p. 32.
- ^ Hilgard, Alfred (ed.). Scholia Londinensia in Dionyisii Thracis Artem grammaticem (Grammatici Graeci, Vol. I:3. Leipzig. p. 429.
- ^ a b Uhlhorn, F. (1925). "Die Großbuchstaben der sogenannten gotischen Schrift". Zeitschrift für Buchkunde. 2: 57–64 and 64–74.
- ^ Hoz, Javier de (1998). "Epigrafía griega de occidente y escritura greco-ibérica". In Cabrera Bonet, P.; Sánchez Fernández, C. (eds.). Los griegos en España: tras las huellas de Heracles. Madrid: Ministerio de Educación y Cultura. pp. 180–196.
- S2CID 141879381.
- ISBN 9783447042406.
- ^ "Revised proposal to add the Coptic alphabet to the BMP of the UCS (N2636)" (PDF). 2003.
- ^ Foat, Tsade and Sampi, p.363, refers to Ϣ as itself a version of sampi.
- ^ Braune, Wilhelm (1895). A Gothic Grammar - With Selections for Reading and a Glossary. London: Kegan Paul. p. 2.
- ISBN 0-300-05846-2.
- ^ Küster, Marc Wilhelm (2006). Geordnetes Weltbild: die Tradition des alphabetischen Sortierens von der Keilschrift bis zur EDV. Tübingen: Niemeyer. pp. 225, 653.
- ^ Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997). Greek: a comprehensive grammar of the modern language. London: Routledge. p. 105.
- ^ a b c Everson, Michael (1998). "Additional Greek characters for the UCS" (PDF).
- ^ a b Haralambous, Yannis (1999). "From Unicode to typography, a case study: the Greek script" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-04.
- ^ "The Unicode Standard 3.1. Greek and Coptic" (PDF).
- ^ "The Unicode Standard 5.2. Greek and Coptic" (PDF).
- ^ "Summary of repertoire for second PDAM 3 of ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2010-10-04.
- ^ "ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 N 3891" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-10-04.
- ^ a b Unicode Consortium. "Unicode Character Database: Derived Property Data". Retrieved 2010-09-25.
- ^ Nicholas, Nick. "Numerals". Archived from the original on 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2010-08-12.
- ^ Nicholas, Nick (2005). "Proposal to add Greek epigraphical letters to the UCS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 17, 2006. Retrieved 2010-08-12.
- ^ The following free fonts have implemented the new characters: "IFAO-Grec Unicode" (Institut français d'archéologie orientale. "Polices de caractères". Retrieved 2010-10-03.), "New Athena Unicode" (Donald Mastronarde. "About New Athena Unicode Font".), and a group of fonts including "Alfios", "Aroania", "Atavyros" and others (George Douros. "Unicode fonts for ancient scripts". Retrieved 2010-10-03.).
- ^ "The TLG Beta Code Manual 2010" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2010-10-04.
- ^ Beccari, Claudio (2010). "Teubner.sty: An extension to the greek option of the babel package" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-10-04.
Sources
- Thompson, Edward M. (1893). Handbook of Greek and Latin palaeography. New York: D. Appleton. p. 7.