Samudragupta
Samudragupta | |
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Maharajadhiraja | |
Gupta Emperor | |
Reign | c.335–375 CE |
Predecessor | Chandragupta I, possibly Kacha |
Successor | Chandragupta II, or possibly Ramagupta |
Born | c. 318 CE Pataliputra, Magadha, Gupta Empire (Modern day Kumaradevi |
Religion | Hinduism (Vaishnavism) |
Military career | |
Battles/wars |
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Gupta Empire 320 CE–550 CE | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Samudragupta (
The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a prashasti (eulogy) composed by his courtier Harisena, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories into his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far south as Kanchipuram in the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. At the height of his power, his empire under his direct control extended from Ravi River in the west (present-day Punjab) to the Brahmaputra River in the east (present-day Assam), and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were also his tributaries. The inscription also states that many neighbouring rulers tried to please him, which probably refers to his friendly relations with them.
He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty and remained undefeated in battle. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played musical instruments such as the veena. His expansionist policy was continued by his son and successor Chandragupta II.
Period
Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE.[3]
The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the
If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319–320 CE.
The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain.[5] Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavatigupta is known to have married during the reign of his son Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year.[7]
Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include:
- A. S. Altekar: c. 330–370 CE[4]
- A. L. Basham: c. 335–376 CE[4]
- S. R. Goyal: c. 350–375 CE[4]
- Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353–373 CE[8]
Ascension
Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and Queen Kumaradevi, who came from the
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta I appointed him as the next emperor, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look".[11] One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested.[12] Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes with a rival claim to the throne.[11] If Emperor Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour.[13]
The coins of a Gupta ruler named Kacha, whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings".[14] These coins closely resemble the coins issued by Samudragupta.[15] According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta and the emperor later adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his empire's dominion as far as the ocean.[16] An alternative theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne[14][16]) who flourished before or after Samudragupta.[15]
Military career
The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams.[17] The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time.[18] The later Allahabad Pillar inscription, a panegyric written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests.[19] It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order.[20] It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title Prakrama (valourous).[21] The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans".[18]
Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth (dharani-bandha), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a
Early victories
The early portion of the
It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again.[25] Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region.[26]
Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day
The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa
Southern conquests
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of Dakshinapatha, the southern region:[19]
- Mahendra of Kosala
- Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
- Mantaraja of Kurala
- Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
- Svamidatta of Kottura
- Damana of Erandapalla
- Vishnugopaof Kanchi
- Nilaraja of Avamukta
- Hastivarman of Vengi
- Ugrasena of Palakka
- Kubera of Devarashtra
- Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,[29] but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.[30] Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of Bay of Bengal.[31]
The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured (anugraha) them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his tributaries. M. G. S. Narayanan interprets the word anugraha differently based on its occurrence in the Arthashastra; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances.[32]
Some scholars, such as
- Mahendra of Kosala
- Kosala here refers to Dakshina Kosala, which includes parts of present-day Chhattisgarh and Odisha.[29] One theory identifies Mahendra of Kosala with a Nala king named Mahendraditya.[35]
- Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
- Historian K. P. Jayaswal identifies Mahakantara (literally "great wilderness") as the Bastar-Kanker area in present-day Chhattisgarh.[29] According to another theory, Mahakantara is same as Mahavana, a synonym used as the name for the forest region around present-day Jeypore of Odisha.[36]
- Earlier historians identified Mahakantara as a region in central India, and identified Vyaghra-raja with the
- Mantaraja of Kurala
- The Rawan inscription of the A. M. Shastri disputes this theory, arguing that the ruler of Kosala (that is, Dakshina Kosala) has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.[38]
- Lorenz Franz Kielhorn speculated that Kurala was same as Kaurala (or Kunala) mentioned in the Aihole inscription of the 7th century king Pulakeshin II, and identified it as the area around the Kolleru Lake in present-day Andhra Pradesh. H. C. Raychaudhuri disputes this identification, pointing out that this region was a part of Hastivarman's Vengi kingdom, which has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.[37]
- Other proposed identifications of Kurala include Kolada near Rajendra Chola, and identified with Cherla in present-day Telangana.[37]
- Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
- Pishtapura is modern J. F. Fleet speculated that "Mahendragiri" could not have been a person's name: he suggested that the verse (Mahendragiri-Kautturaka-Svamidatta) referred to a king called "Mahendra", and a place called "Kottura on the hill" which was ruled by Svamidatta. However, Fleet's translation is incorrect: the verse clearly mentions Mahendragiri of Pishtapura and Svamidatta of Kottura as two distinct persons.[40] G. Ramdas interpreted the verse to mean Svamidatta was the ruler of Pishtapura and "Kottura near Mahendragiri", while Bhau Daji translated it as "Svamidatta of Pishtapura, Mahendragiri and Kottura". However, these translations are also incorrect.[41] The concern about the king's name is invalid: several historical records mention names ending in the word giri or its synonym adri.[40][42]
- Svamidatta of Kottura
- Svamidatta was probably one of the chiefs who resisted Samudragupta's passage through the Kalinga region.[43] Kottura has been identified with modern Kotturu (or Kothur) in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh (near Paralakhemundi, Odisha).[44] Alternative proposals identify it with other similarly named places in present-day Andhra Pradesh.[36]
- Damana of Erandapalla
- Proposed identifications of Erandapalla include Errandapali near Srikakulam, a town near Mukhalingam, Yendipalli in Visakhapatnam district, and Endipalli in West Godavari district.[45]
- Vishnugopaof Kanchi
- Vishnugopa is identified as the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram: Samudragupta's invasion probably occurred when he acted as a regent for his nephew Skandavarman III.[46]
- Nilaraja of Avamukta
- The identity of Avamukta is uncertain.[47] The Brahmanda Purana mentions an area called "Avimukta-kshetra", located on the banks of the Gautami river (that is, Godavari), which may be identified with Avamukta of Samudragupta's inscription.[48] Some historical texts use the name Avamukta-kshetra for the region around Varanasi,[46] but Varanasi is not located in Dakshinapatha, and therefore, was certainly not the Avamukta mentioned in the inscription.[47]
- Hastivarman of Vengi
- Hastivarman was the
- Ugrasena of Palakka
- J. Dubreuil identified Palakka with the place referred to as Palakkada in several Pallava inscriptions; this location was probably the headquarters of a Pallava viceroyalty. For example, the Uruvapalli grant inscription of Yuva-maharaja (Prince) Vishnugopa-varman was issued from Palakkada.[50]
- G. Ramdas identified it with Pakkai located between Udayagiri and Venkatagiri in the Nellore district, and theorized that it was same as the place referred to as Paka-nadu, Panka-nadu, or Pakai-nadu in the inscriptions of the 10th century Chola king Rajaraja I.[50]
- Kubera of Devarashtra
- According to one theory, Deva-rashtra was located in the historical Kalinga region of present-day northern
- Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
- B. V. Krishnarao speculated that Dhananjaya of Samudragupta's inscription may be same as the Dhananjaya from whom the chieftains of Dhanyakataka (modern Dharanikota in Andhra Pradesh) claimed descent. He identified Kusthalapura with modern Kolanupaka (or Kollipak) located on the banks of the Aleru River in present-day Telangana.[30] Another theory identifies Kusthalapura with a tract around the Kushasthali river near Dakshina Kosala.[48]
Northern conquests
According to the
- Rudradeva
- Matila
- Nagadatta
- Chandravarman
- Ganapatinaga
- Nagasena
- Achyuta-nandin
- Balavarman
Unlike the southern kings, the inscription does not mention the territories ruled by these kings, which suggests that their kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta empire.[52] The inscription also mentions that Samudragupta defeated some other kings, but does not mention their names, presumably because the poet saw them as unimportant.[34]
- Rudradeva
- Rudradeva may be same as a king named Rudra, whose coin has been found at
- Some earlier scholars, such as Vakataka king Rudrasena I. However, this identification seems to be inaccurate, because Samudragupta's inscription explicitly mentions Rudradeva as a king of the northern region (Aryavarta), while the Vakatakas ruled in the southern region (Dakshinapatha). An argument cited in support of this identification is that Rudrasena bore the title Maharaja ("great king") as opposed to samrat ("emperor"), signifying his subordinate status to Samudragupta. However, multiple sovereign Vakataka kings bore the title Maharaja: only Pravarasena I assumed the title samrat after performing a vajapeya ritual sacrifice. An inscription of Rudrasena's descendant Prithvishena II mentions that the Vakataka kingdom had been prospering for a hundred years, suggesting that the Vakataka rule remained uninterrupted during Rudrasena's reign.[54]
- Matila
- The identity of Matila is not certain.palaeographic basis.[56]
- Nagadatta
- Nagadatta is not known from any other inscriptions or coins, but his name has led to suggestions that he may have been the ruler of a Naga branch.[55] D. C. Sircar theorized that he was an ancestor of a family of Gupta viceroys, whose names ended in -datta. Tej Ram Sharma speculates that he may have been a Naga ruler, whose successors were sent as Gupta viceroys in Bengal after the family accepted the Gupta suzerainty.[57]
- Chandravarman
- Chandravarman of Samudragupta's inscription has been identified with Chandravarman, the ruler of Pushkarana (modern Pakhanna) in present-day West Bengal.[55] P. L. Gupta and some earlier scholars have identified this ruler with another Chandravarman, who has been mentioned in an inscription discovered at Mandsaur in present-day Madhya Pradesh.[58][53] Tej Ram Sharma disputes this identification, arguing that Samudragupta "exterminated" all kings of Aryavarta and annexed their territories, as suggested by the Allahabad Pillar inscription; however, Naravarman – a brother of Chandravarman of Mandsaur – is known to have been ruling as a feudatory in 404 CE.[57]
- Ganapatinaga
- Ganapati-naga is identified as a Naga king. Several coins bearing the legend Ganapati have been discovered at Padmavati, Vidisha, and Mathura. Although these coins do not bear the suffix "naga", they are similar to the ones issued by the other Naga kings such as Skanda-naga, Brihaspati-naga, and Deva-naga. Since hundreds of Ganapati's coins have been found at Mathura, it appears that he was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Mathura.[55]
- Nagasena
- The 7th century text Harshacharita refers to the Naga king Nagasena, who "met with his doom in Padmavati, as his secret plan was divulged by a sarika bird". Assuming this describes a historical person, it appears that Nagasena was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Padmavati in present-day Madhya Pradesh.[55]
- Achyuta-nandin
- Achyuta-nandin seems to be same as Achyuta, who is mentioned earlier in the inscription; his name may have been shortened in the earlier verses for metrical purposes.[53] An alternatively theory identifies Achyuta and Nandin as two distinct kings.[59]
- Achyuta was the ruler of Ahichchhatra in present-day Uttar Pradesh, where coins attributed to him have been discovered.[25] These coins bear the legend "Achyu", and are similar to the coins issued by the Naga rulers. This has led to suggestions that the Achyuta-nandin defeated by Samudragupta was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Ahichhatra.[55]
- Balavarman
- V. V. Mirashi identified Bala-varman (or Balavarma) as a ruler of the Magha dynasty of
- K. N. Dikshit identified Balavarman with Balavarman, a ruler of the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa; however, Balavarman was not a contemporary of Samudragupta.[62] Moreover, Kamarupa has been mentioned as a distinct frontier kingdom later on in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.[61]
Conquests in the forest region
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region (atavika) to subservience.[63] This forest region may have been located in central India: the inscriptions of the Parivrajaka dynasty, which ruled in this area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located within the 18 forest kingdoms.[60]
Frontier kings and tribes
The
"Samudragupta, whose formidable rule was propitiated with the payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court) for obeisance by such frontier rulers as those of
Ābhīras, Prārjunas, Sanakānīkas, Kākas, Kharaparikas and other nations."— Lines 22–23 of the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta (r.c.350–375 CE).[67]
Historian Upinder Singh theorizes that the relationship of these frontier rulers to the Gupta emperor had "certain elements of a feudatory relationship".[66] According to historian R. C. Majumdar, it is likely that Samudragupta's conquests in Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha increased his reputation to such an extent that the frontier rulers and tribes submitted him without a fight.[68]
The frontier kingdoms included:[66]
- Samatata, located in the present-day Bengal.[69]
- Davaka, located in present-day Assam.[69]
- Kamarupa, located in present-day Assam.[69]
- Licchavi kingdom, whose rulers may have been the maternal relatives of Samudragupta.[70]
- Karttripura, probably located in the present-day Uttarakhand: the inscription appears to name frontier kingdoms in geographical order proceeding from Bengal to Assam to Nepal; Uttarakhand would be next in the sequence.[69] A now-obsolete theory identified Karttripura with Kartarpur in present-day Punjab, but Kartarpur was established much later, in the 16th century, by Guru Arjan.[69]
The tribal oligarchies included:[66]
- Malavas: During Samudragupta's period, they were probably headquartered at Karkota-nagara (present-day Nagar Fort in Rajasthan), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered.[72]
- Arjunayanas: Their coins have been found in the Mathura region.[73] According to numismatist John Allan, the Arjunayanas resided in the triangle connecting the present-day Delhi, Jaipur and Agra.[72]
- Yaudheyas: They ruled the area between the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers after the Kushans. They seem to have become Samudragupta's tributaries.[74]
- Madrakas: They are generally placed between the Ravi and the Chenab rivers.[74]
- Abhiras: Epigraphic and literary evidence suggests that they ruled in western India during Samudragupta's period.[75]
- Sanakanikas: They appear to have ruled the region around Udayagiri in present-day Madhya Pradesh. An inscription found at Udayagiri refers to a Sanakanika chief as a feudatory of Chandragupta II: this chief and his two predecessors are described as "Maharajas", which suggests that Samudragupta allowed the Sanakanika chiefs to rule as his governors after conquering their territory.[76]
- Kakas: They may have been the rulers of the area around the Sanchi hill, which has been mentioned as Kakanada in ancient inscriptions.[76]
- Prarjunas They may be identified as the Prarjunakas mentioned in the Arthashastra, but their location is uncertain. Various theories place them in central India, including around the present-day Narsinghpur or Narsinghgarh in Madhya Pradesh.[77][78]
- Kharaparikas: They may be same as the "Kharaparas" (literally "thief" or "rogue"[79]) mentioned in a 14th-century stone inscription found at Batiyagarh (or Battisgarh) in Damoh district. These Kharaparas are variously identified as an indigenous tribe or freebooters of this region.[77]
- Some later sources suggest that the Kharaparas were a foreign tribe (possibly Mongols), and the Dingal-language texts use the word "Kharapara" as a synonym for "Muslim", but such an identification is not applicable to Samudragupta's period.[77]
- There is also some speculation about the Kharaparikas being same as the Gardabhilas mentioned in the Puranas, as the words "Khara" and "Gardabha" both mean "donkey" in Sanskrit. However, very little is known about the Gardabhilas from historical sources.[80]
Relations with other rulers
Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending on him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens[81]); and seeking the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[82] These kings included "Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala".[66][83]
- Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi
- Numismatist
- According to historian Tej Ram Sharma, Daivaputra refers to a Kushan king (Devaputra being a Kushan title); Shahi refers to a sub-branch of the Kushans; and Shahanushahi refers to the Sasanians. These kings controlled parts of present-day Punjab and Afghanistan.[86]
- Historian Ashvini Agrwal theorizes that Kidara, who initially ruled as a vassal of the Sasanian king
- According to Abraham Eraly and others, the expression Devaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhi evidently designates the Kushan princes, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titles Devaputra, Shao and Shaonanoshao: "Son of God, King, King of Kings".[84][87][88] This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled in Punjab, but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor.[89]
- Shaka-Murundas
- Some scholars believe that the term "Shaka-Murundas" refers to a single entity. For example, scholars such as Shaka title meaning "lord"; the Kushans also used similar titles (for example, Kanishka is titled a "muroda" in his Zeda inscription).[90]
- Other scholars, such as Lampaka (in present-day Afghanistan). However, Agrwal points out that these sources are of relatively late origin, and it is possible that a branch of the Shakas had come to be known as "Murundas".[90]
- Simhala and other islands
- According to the Chinese sources, Meghavarna, the king of Simhala (present-day Sri Lanka), sought to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya, for the convenience of the pilgrims from his kingdom. He sent rich presents for this purpose, and Samudragupta sanctioned his request to build the monastery. Using poetic exaggeration, Samudragupta's courtier Harishena appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.[92] Similarly, the 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang, who visited this monastery, appears to have regarded the rich presents sent by Meghavarna as tribute: he states that Meghavarna "gave in tribute to the king of India all the jewels of his country".[93]
- The "other islands" may be the Indianized kingdoms of South-East Asia, but there is no evidence that their rulers were subordinate to Samudragupta.[92] They probably sent embassies to the Gupta empire, and maintained friendly relations.[93] The sea ports of the Gupta Empire, such as Tamralipti, were probably connected to these kingdoms through the marine routes. The widespread use of Sanskrit in these kingdoms may have happened as a result of Gupta influence.[94]
Imperial extent
Samudragupta's empire included a core territory, located in northern India, which was directly controlled by the emperor. Besides, it comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states.
In the south, Samudragupta's empire definitely included Eran in present-day Madhya Pradesh, where his inscription has been found.[96] The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he advanced up to Kanchipuram in the south.[30] However, since the claims in the Allahabad Pillar inscription are from a royal eulogy, they must be treated with caution. The southern kings were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute.[97]
According to historian Kunal Chakrabarti, Samudragupta's military campaigns weakened the tribal republics of present-day Punjab and Rajasthan, but even these kingdoms were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. Samudragupta's claim of control over other kings is questionable.
Some earlier scholars, such as
Coinage
The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest of the subcontinent.[104][102] The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name Denarius aureus.[105][106][107] The standard coin type of Samudragupta is highly similar to the coinage of the later Kushan rulers, including the sacrificial scene over an altar, the depiction of a halo, while differences include the headdress of the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry, which is Indian.[101]
The following types of Samudragupta's coins, inscribed with Sanskrit language legends, have been discovered:[108]
- Standard type
- Obverse legend: Samara-shata-vitata-vijayo-jita-ripurajito-divam-jayati. Translation: "The unconquered one who has conquered his enemies [and] has continuously attained victories in a hundred battles, wins heaven";[109] Alternative translation: "The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven".[110]
- Reverse legend: Prakramah[110]
- Archer type
- Depicts Samudragupta standing fully dressed with a bow on his left hand and an arrow on his right hand.[110]
- Obverse legend: Apratiratha vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avnipatir) divam Jayati. Translation: "Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth, he conquers heaven by his good deeds".[110]
- Reverse legend: Apratirathah[110]
- Battle-axe type
- Obverse legend: Kritanta-parshur-jayatyajitarajajetaji-tah. Translation: "Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious"[110]
- Reverse legend: Kritanta-parashuh[110]
- Tiger-slayer type
- Depicts the king wearing turban and waist-cloth, and trampling a tiger[110]
- Legend: Vaghra-prakramah. Translation: "Having the prowess of a tiger".[110]
- Lyrist type
- Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-cloth and seated cross-legged on a couch, playing a veena that lies on his knees.[110]
- Legend: the king's name[110]
- Ashvamedha type
- Obverse legend: Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatyahritavaji-medhah ("the overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers the heaven") on the reverse.[111]
- Some coins have an alternative legend: Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatya-prativarya-viryah ("the overlord of kings, of irresistible valour, having protected the earth, wins heaven").[111]
- Reverse legend: Ashvamedha-prakramah ("possessing the valour to perform the horse-sacrifice")
Various scholars, including numismatist John Allan, consider that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents,[112][102] while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself.[9][113]
-
A gold coin of Samudragupta
-
Commemorative type of Chandragupta I: this coin is in the name of Chandragupta I, but since no other coin types of Chandragupta are known, this is thought to be a commemorative issue minted by his son Samudragupta.[112][102][103]
-
Ashvamedha type coin
-
Lyrist type coin
Inscriptions
Two inscriptions from Samudragupta's reign have been discovered:[8]
- Allahabad Pillar inscription
- Eran stone inscription
Fleet theorized that the Allahabad Pillar inscription was posthumous, and was issued during the reign of Chandragupta II, but modern scholars disagree with this theory.[114]
Two other records are attributed to Samudragupta's reign, but the genuineness of these records is disputed:[115]
- Nalanda inscription, dated to the regnal year 5
- Gaya inscription, dated to the regnal year 9
Both these inscriptions state that they were written at the order of the Gupta officer Gopaswamin. Like the Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II, these records describe Samudragupta as the "restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice". It seems suspicious that records issued so early in Samudragupta's reign mention this claim, which does not appear in the later Allahabad Pillar inscription. One possibility is that these records were issued during Samudragupta's reign, and were damaged after some time, because of which they were restored during the reign of Chandragupta II.[115]
Eran inscription
At Eran, an inscription by Samudragupta seems to succeed that of a local Saka ruler named Sridharavarman, already known from the Kanakerha inscription at Sanchi and another inscription in Eran. Samudragupta may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman in his campaigns to the West.[116] The Eran Inscription of Samudragupta is presently stored in Kolkata Indian Museum. The inscription, in red sandstone, was found not far to the west of the ruined temple of the boar. It reads:
(Lines 1 to 6, containing the whole of the first verse and the first half of the second, are entirely broken away and lost.)
(Line 7.)— ....................................in giving gold ...................................... [by whom] Prithu and Râghava and other kings [were outshone.]
(L. 9.)— . . . . . . . . . there was Samudragupta, equal to (the gods) Dhanada and Antaka in (respectively) pleasure and anger; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by policy; (and) [by whom] the whole tribe of kings upon the earth was [overthrown] and reduced to the loss of the wealth of their sovereignty;—
(L. 13.)— [Who], by . . . . . . . . . satisfied by devotion and policy and valour,—by the glories, consisting of the consecration by besprinkling, &c., that belong to the title of 'king,'— (and) by . . . . . . . . . . . combined with supreme satisfaction, — .................. (was) a king whose vigour could not be resisted;—
(L. 17.)— [By whom] there was married a virtuous and faithful wife, whose dower was provided by (his) manliness and prowess; who was possessed of an abundance of [elephants] and horses and money and grain; who delighted in the houses of .............; (and) who went about in the company of many sons and sons' sons;—
(L. 21.)— Whose deeds in battle (are) kindled with prowess; (whose) . . . . . . very mighty fame is always circling round about; and whose enemies are terrified, when they think, even in the intervals of dreaming, of (his). . . . . . . that are vigorous in war; —
(L. 25.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in a place in Airikina (Eran), the city of his own enjoyment. . . . . . . . . . . . . has been set up, for the sake of augmenting his own fame.
(L. 27.) — . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . when the king said . . . . . . .
(The rest of the inscription is entirely broken away and lost.)
— Eran inscription of Samudragupta[117]
Religion
Samudragputa's Eran inscription records the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple.[18] The Nalanda and Gaya inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu (parama-Bhagavata)[118] He was also tolerant towards Buddhism, and permitted the construction of a Buddhist monastery commissioned by the Anuradhapura king Meghavarna at Bodh Gaya in his territory.[119]
The
The Allahabad Pillar inscription alludes to his
Ashvamedha
Samudragupta performed the
The Mathura stone inscription of
The surviving verses of Samudragupta's own Allahabad Pillar inscription do not mention the Ashvamedha ceremony. According to one theory, this inscription was put up to mark the beginning of the ceremony, as the panegyrics of the sacrificer were an essential part of the Ashvamedha ceremony.[123] It is possible that its first four lines, which are now lost, contained a reference to the ceremony. [118]
Personality
Samudragupta's coins depict him as a man of tall stature and muscular physique.[125] The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents him as a compassionate ruler, stating that his "mind was engaged in providing relief to the low, the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted".[126] It also mentions that he reinstated many royal families which had lost their kingdoms, including the kings defeated by him.[127] At the same time, it states that he maintained strict administration ("Prachanda shasana").[110]
The inscription states that Samudragupta became famous among the learned people because of his poetical works, and earned the epithet "king of poets".[127] This suggests that he composed some poetical works, but none of these works now survive.[127]
The inscription also boasts that Samudragupta put to shame the celestial musician Tumburu and Narada by his lovely performances of music. [110] Samudragupta's musical talents are also corroborated by his gold coins which depict him playing a veena. [127]
The inscription praises Samudragupta's wisdom and intellect,[127] stating that he put to shame the preceptor of the Lord of the Gods (that is, Brihaspati) by his sharp intellect.[110]
Succession
The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II, who was his son from Dattadevi.[128] Based on a reconstruction of the partially-lost Sanskrit play Devichandraguptam, a section of modern historians believe that Samudragupta was initially succeeded by Ramagupta (presumably the eldest son), who was then dethroned by Chandragupta II.[129][130]
References
- ^ Allen, John (1914). Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties. pp. 1-2.
- ^ Full inscription, Fleet, John Faithfull (1888). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. 3. pp. 1-17.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 50–52.
- ^ a b c d Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 50.
- ^ a b c R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 35.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 36.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 51–52.
- ^ a b c d Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 67.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 11.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 103.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 18.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 104–105.
- ^ a b c Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 73.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 105.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 20.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 71.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 67–68.
- ^ a b c d e f Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 68.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 76–77.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 75.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 74.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1978, p. 53.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, pp. 20–21.
- ^ a b c d e Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 106.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 76.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 21.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1978, p. 136.
- ^ a b c d Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 107.
- ^ a b c d Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 112.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 80–81.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 78.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 113.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 114.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 38.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 39.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 108.
- ^ Ajay Mitra Shastri 1995, p. 12–13.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 79.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1978, p. 316.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1978, pp. 316–317.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1978, p. 258.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 109.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 109–110.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 110.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1978, p. 253.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 80.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 110–111.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 111.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 111–112.
- ^ a b c R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 22.
- ^ a b c d Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 81.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 115.
- ^ a b c d e f Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 116.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 115–116.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 82.
- ^ Upinder Singh 2008, p. 477.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 42.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 117.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 83.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 116-117.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 84.
- ISBN 9780714111650.
- ^ Cribb, Joe (January 2010). "The Kidarites, the numismatic evidence.pdf". Coins, Art and Chronology II, Edited by M. Alram et Al.: 101.
- ^ a b c d e Upinder Singh 2017, p. 343.
- ^ Fleet, John Faithfull (1888). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. 3. pp. 6–10.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 25.
- ^ a b c d e f Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 118.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 85.
- ISBN 0226742210. Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 119.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 86.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 120.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 120–121.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 44.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 121.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 88.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 125.
- ^ Shankar Goyal 2001, p. 168.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 77–78.
- ^ ISBN 9780670084784.
- ^ a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 122.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 89.
- ISBN 9788120815407.
- ^ Cribb, Joe (January 2017). "TWO CURIOUS KIDARITE COIN TYPES FROM 5 TH CENTURY KASHMIR by Joe Cribb and Karan Singh". Jons: 3.
- ISBN 9789231032110.
- ^ a b c d Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 123.
- ^ a b c Mirashi, Vasudev Vishnu (1955). Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri Chedi Era. Archaeological Society of India. pp. 605–611.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 90.
- ^ a b R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 27.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 124.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 23, 27.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 23.
- ^ a b K. Chakrabarti 1996, p. 185.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 128.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 109, 112.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1978, p. 245.
- ^ ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ ISBN 9781438109961.
- ^ ISBN 9788120603455.
- ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ "Known by the term Dinars in early Gupta inscriptions, their gold coinage was based on the weight standard of the Kushans i.e. 8 gms/120 grains. It was replaced in the time of Skandagupta by a standard of 80 ratis or 144 grains" Vanaja, R. (1983). Indian Coinage. National Museum.
- ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ Gupta inscriptions using the term "Dinara" for money: No 5-9, 62, 64 in Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors.
- ^ Allen, John (1914). Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties. pp. 1-20.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 92.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 94.
- ^ a b c d Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 126.
- ^ ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 69.
- ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 70.
- ^ "During the course of this expedition, he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in Pradesh (India), Madhya; Krishnan, V. S. (1982). Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers. Government Central Press. p. 28.
- ^ Fleet, John F. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum: Inscriptions of the Early Guptas. Vol. III. Calcutta: Government of India, Central Publications Branch, 1888, pp20-21
- ^ a b c d R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 32.
- ^ Lallanji Gopal 1969, pp. 56–57, 74.
- ^ a b c Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 91.
- ^ Ashvini Agrawal 1989, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 93.
- ^ a b c Ashvini Agrawal 1989, p. 127.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 33.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 95.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, p. 91, 94.
- ^ a b c d e R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 31.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 46.
- ^ R. C. Majumdar 1981, p. 48.
- ^ Tej Ram Sharma 1989, pp. 95–96.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-81-208-0637-5.
- Ashvini Agrawal (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7.
- K. Chakrabarti (1996). "Origin and political history of the Guptas". In Ahmad Hasan Dani; B. A. Litvinsky (eds.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-103211-0.
- Lallanji Gopal (1969). Samudragupta. National Book Trust. OCLC 583078075.
- OCLC 34008529.
- Shankar Goyal (2001). Problems of Ancient Indian History: New Perspectives and Perceptions. Book Enclave. ISBN 978-81-87036-66-1.
- Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
- Tej Ram Sharma (1978). Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions. Concept. p. 258. OCLC 249004782.
- Tej Ram Sharma (1989). A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta. Concept. ISBN 978-81-7022-251-4.
- ISBN 978-0-674-98128-7.
Further reading
- Dilip Kumar Ganguly (1987). The Imperial Guptas and Their Times. Abhinav. ISBN 978-81-7017-222-2.