Samuel of Bulgaria

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Samuil" redirects here. For the village in Bulgaria, see
Brythonic king ("Samuil of the Britons"), see Sawyl Penuchel. For the Hungarian king, see Samuel Aba
.
Samuel
Bulgarian Orthodox

Samuel (also Samoil

Roman I of Bulgaria,[6] the second surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria, and co-ruled with him, as Roman bestowed upon him the command of the army and the effective royal authority.[7] As Samuel struggled to preserve his country's independence from the Byzantine Empire, his rule was characterized by constant warfare against the Byzantines and their equally ambitious ruler Basil II
.

In his early years, Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns into their territory.

heart attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophic battle of Kleidion. His successors failed to organize a resistance, and in 1018, four years after Samuel's death, the country capitulated, ending the five decades-long Byzantine–Bulgarian conflict.[10]

Samuel was considered "invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength".

Western Bulgarian Empire.[17][18]
Samuel's energetic reign restored Bulgarian might on the Balkans, even though the Empire was disestablished after his death.

The rise of the Cometopuli

Bulgarian territory ca. 960.

The Cometopuli

See also: Cometopuli dynasty

Samuel was the fourth[19] and youngest son of count Nicholas, a Bulgarian noble, who might have been the count of Sredets district (modern-day Sofia),[20] although other sources suggest that he was a regional count of Prespa district in the region of Macedonia.[21] His mother was Rhipsime of Armenia.[22] The actual name of the dynasty is not known. Cometopuli is the nickname used by Byzantine historians which is translated as "sons of the count". The Cometopuli rose to power out of the disorder that occurred in the Bulgarian Empire from 966 to 971.

Rus' invasion and the deposition of Boris II

Main article: Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria
Preslav
.

During the reign of

Sviatoslav, who invaded Bulgaria several times. After a defeat from Sviatoslav, Peter I suffered a stroke and abdicated his throne in 969 (he died the next year). Boris was allowed back to Bulgaria to take his father's throne, restore order and oppose Sviatoslav, but had little success. This was allegedly used by Nicholas and his sons, who were contemplating a revolt in 969.[24]

The Rus' invaded Byzantine Thrace in 970, but suffered a defeat in the

Preslav,[25] died in 970. In the same year[26] "the sons of the count" (the Cometopuli) David, Moses, Aaron and Samuel rebelled.[27]
The series of events are not clear due to contradicting sources, but it is sure that after 971 Samuel and his brothers were the de facto rulers of the western Bulgarian lands.

In 973, the Cometopuli (described by

Otto I in Quedlinburg in an attempt to secure the protection of their lands.[29] The brothers ruled together in a tetrarchy.[30] David ruled the southernmost regions and led the defense of one of the most dangerous border areas, around Thessaloniki and Thessaly.[30] The centres of his possessions were Prespa and Kastoria. Moses ruled from Strumitsa,[30] which would be an outpost for attacks on the Aegean coast and Serres. Aaron ruled from Sredets,[30] and was to defend the main road from Adrianople to Belgrade, and to attack Thrace. Samuel ruled northwestern Bulgaria from the strong fortress of Vidin. He was also to organize the liberation of the conquered areas to the east, including the old capital Preslav.[31] Some records suggest that David played a major role in this tumultuous period of Bulgarian history.[32]

War with Byzantium

Boris II
and icons from Preslav.

After John I Tzimiskes died on 11 January 976, the Cometopuli launched an assault along the whole border. Within a few weeks, however, David was killed by

Bulgarian uprising broke there,[34] led by two boyars – Petar and Boyan, who became allies of the Cometopuli and submitted to their rule.[35] The Byzantine army was defeated and retreated to Crimea.[36][37] Any Bulgarian nobles and officials who had not opposed the Byzantine conquest of the region were executed, and the war continued north of the Danube until the enemy was scattered and Bulgarian rule was restored.[38]

After suffering these defeats in the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire descended into civil war. The commander of the Asian army,

Asia Minor and sent troops under his son Romanus in Thrace to besiege Constantinople. The new Emperor Basil II did not have enough manpower to fight both the Bulgarians and the rebels and resorted to treason, conspiracy and complicated diplomatic plots.[39] Basil II made many promises to the Bulgarians and Scleros to divert them from allying against him.[40] Aaron, the eldest living Cometopulus, was tempted by an alliance with the Byzantines and the opportunity to seize power in Bulgaria for himself. He held land in Thrace, a region potentially subject to the Byzantine threat. Basil reached an agreement with Aaron, who asked to marry Basil's sister to seal it. Basil instead sent the wife of one of his officials with the bishop of Sebaste. However, the deceit was uncovered and the bishop was killed.[41] Nonetheless, negotiations proceeded and concluded in a peace agreement. The historian Scylitzes wrote that Aaron wanted sole power and "sympathized with the Romans".[42] Samuel learned of the conspiracy and the clash between the two brothers was inevitable. The quarrel broke out in the vicinity of Dupnitsa on 14 June 976 and ended with the annihilation of Aaron's family. Only his son, Ivan Vladislav, survived because Samuel's son Gavril Radomir pleaded on his behalf.[43]
From that moment on, practically all power and authority in the state were held by Samuel and the danger of an internal conflict was eliminated.

However, another theory suggests that Aaron participated in the battle of the Gates of Trajan which took place ten years later. According to that theory Aaron was killed on 14 June 987 or 988.[44][45]

Co-rule with Roman

Main article: Battle of the Gates of Trajan

After the Byzantine plan to use Aaron to cause instability in Bulgaria failed, they tried to encourage the rightful heirs to the throne,

Boris II and Roman, to oppose Samuel. Basil II hoped that they would win the support of the nobles and isolate Samuel or perhaps even start a Bulgarian civil war.[47] Boris and Roman were sent back in 977[48] but while they were passing through a forest near the border, Boris was killed by Bulgarian guards who were misled by his Byzantine clothing. Roman, who was walking some distance behind, managed to identify himself to the guards.[49]

Roman was taken to Vidin, where he was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria.[50] Samuel became his first lieutenant and general and together they gathered an army and fought the Byzantines.[51] During his captivity, Roman had been castrated on the orders of John I Tzimiskes so that he would not have heirs. Thus Samuel was certain to eventually succeed Roman. The new emperor entrusted Samuel with the state administration and became occupied with church and religious affairs.[52]

Thessalonica, duke Gregory Taronites
.

As the main effort of Basil II was concentrated against the rebel Skleros, Samuel's armies attacked the European possessions of the Byzantine Empire. Samuel invaded not only Thrace and the area of Thessaloniki, but also Thessaly, Hellas and the Peloponnese. Many Byzantine fortresses fell to the Bulgarians.[53] Samuel wanted to seize the important fortress of Larissa, which controlled the key routes in Thessaly, and from 977 to 983 the town was blockaded. After starvation forced the Byzantines to surrender,[15] the population was deported to the interior of Bulgaria and the males were forced to enlist in the Bulgarian army.[54] Although Basil II sent forces to the region, they were defeated. With this victory, Bulgaria had gained influence over most of the southwestern Balkans, although it did not occupy some of these territories. From Larissa, Samuel took the relics of Saint Achilleios, which were laid in a specially built church of the same name on an island in Lake Prespa.[55][56][57]

The Bulgarian successes in the west raised fears in Constantinople, and after serious preparations, Basil II launched a campaign into the very centre of the Bulgarian Empire

draught animals and horses. Eventually, the Bulgarian troops burned the siege equipment of the Byzantine army, forcing Basil II to withdraw to Thrace, but on 17 August 986,[61] while passing through the mountains, the Byzantine army was ambushed and routed at the Trajan's Gates Pass. This was a significant blow for Basil,[62][63] who was one of the few to return to Constantinople; his personal treasure was captured by the victors.[64][65]

"Even if the sun would have come down, I would have never thought that the Moesian [Bulgarian] arrows were stronger than the Avzonian [Roman, Byzantine] spears.
... And when you, Phaethon [Sun], descend to the earth with your gold-shining chariot, tell the great soul of the Caesar: The Danube [Bulgaria] took the crown of Rome. The arrows of the Moesians broke the spears of the Avzonians."

John Kyriotes Geometres on the battle of the Gates of Trajan.[66]

After the defeat, the rebellion of

Gregorios Taronites,[72] but he was powerless to stop the Bulgarian advance. By 989, the Bulgarian troops had penetrated deep into Byzantine territory,[73] and seized many fortresses, including such important cities as Veria and Servia. In the south, the Bulgarians marched throughout Epirus and in the west they seized the area of modern Durrës (medieval Dyrrhachium or Drach) on the Adriatic Sea.[74][75][76]

In 989, Phocas was killed and his followers surrendered, and the following year Basil II reached an agreement with Skleros.[77] The Byzantines focused their attention on Bulgaria,[78] and counter-attacked in 991.[79][80] The Bulgarian army was defeated and Roman was captured while Samuel managed to escape.[81] The Byzantines conquered some areas; in 995, however, the Arabs invaded Asia Minor and Basil II was forced to move many of his troops to combat this new threat. Samuel quickly regained the lost lands and advanced south. In 996, he defeated the Byzantines in the battle of Thessaloniki. During the battle, Thessaloniki's governor, Gregorios, perished and his son Ashot was captured.[82] Elated by this success, the Bulgarians continued south. They marched through Thessaly, overcame the defensive wall at Thermopylae and entered the Peloponnese, devastating everything on their way.[83]

The Bulgarian defeat at Spercheios.

As a response, a Byzantine army under Nikephorus Uranos was sent after the Bulgarians, who returned north to meet it. The two armies met near the flooded river of Spercheios. The Byzantines found a place to ford, and on the night of 19 July 996 they surprised the unprepared Bulgarian army and routed it in the battle of Spercheios.[84] Samuel's arm was wounded and he barely escaped captivity; he and his son allegedly feigned death.[85] After nightfall they headed for Bulgaria and walked 400 kilometres (249 mi) home. Research of Samuel's grave suggests that the bone in his arm healed at an angle of 140° but remained crippled.[86]

Emperor

In 997, Roman died in captivity in Constantinople, ending the line of rulers started by

Krum. Because of the war with Byzantium, it was dangerous to leave the throne vacant for long, and Samuel was chosen as the new Emperor of Bulgaria because he had the closest relations to the deceased emperor and was Roman's long-standing military commander.[87] The presbyter of Duklja also marked the event: "By that time among the Bulgarian people rose one Samuel, who proclaimed himself emperor. He led a long war against the Byzantines and expelled them from the whole territory of Bulgaria, so that the Byzantines did not dare to approach it".[88]

"Above the comet scorched the sky, below the Cometopoulos (Samuel) burns the West."

John Kyriotes Geometres[13]

Constantinople would not recognize the new emperor, as for the Byzantines Boris II's abdication symbolized the official end of Bulgaria and Samuel was considered a mere rebel. Instead Samuel sought recognition from the

See of Rome and Bulgaria. Samuel possibly received his imperial crown from Pope Gregory V.[89]

War against Serbs and Croats

In 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against the Duklja to prevent an alliance between Prince Jovan Vladimir and the Byzantines. When the Bulgarian troops reached Duklja, the Serbian prince and his people withdrew to the mountains. Samuel left part of the army at the foot of the mountains and led the remaining soldiers to besiege the coastal fortress of Ulcinj. In an effort to prevent bloodshed, he asked Jovan Vladimir to surrender. After the prince refused, some Serb nobles offered their services to the Bulgarians and, when it became clear that further resistance was fruitless, the Serbs surrendered. Jovan Vladimir was exiled to Samuel's palaces in Prespa.[90]

The wedding of Ashot and Samuel's daughter Miroslava.

The Bulgarian troops proceeded to pass through

Croato-Bulgarian War allowed Samuel to install vassal monarchs in Croatia.[citation needed
]

Samuel's relative

Grand Prince Géza.[93]

Advance of the Byzantines

The beginning of the new millennium saw a turn in the course of Byzantine-Bulgarian warfare.[94] Basil II had amassed an army larger and stronger than that of the Bulgarians: determined to definitively conquer Bulgaria, he moved much of the battle-seasoned military forces from the eastern campaigns against the Arabs to the Balkans[95][96] and Samuel was forced to defend rather than attack.[97]

In 1001, Basil II sent a large army under the patrician

Nikulitsa organized the defenders well. They fought until the Byzantines penetrated the walls and forced them to surrender.[101] Nikulitsa was taken to Constantinople and given the high court title of patrician, but he soon escaped and rejoined the Bulgarians. He attempted to retake Servia, but the siege was unsuccessful and he was captured again and imprisoned.[102]

Meanwhile, Basil II's campaign reconquered many towns in Thessaly. He forced the Bulgarian population of the conquered areas to resettle in the Voleron area between the

Mesta and Maritsa rivers. Edessa resisted for weeks but was conquered following a long siege. The population was moved to Voleron and its governor Dragshan was taken to Thessaloniki, where he was betrothed to the daughter of a local noble. Unwilling to be married to an enemy, Dragshan three times tried to flee to Bulgaria and was eventually executed.[103]

War with Hungary

Main article: Bulgarian–Hungarian wars
Map of Bulgaria in its largest extension during Samuel's reign circa 1000.[29]

The Byzantine–Bulgarian conflict reached its apex in 1003, when Hungary became involved. Since the beginning of the 9th century, the Bulgarian territory had stretched beyond the

Ahtum, the grandson of duke Glad, who had been defeated by the Hungarians in the 930s. Ahtum commanded a strong army and firmly defended the northwestern borders of the Empire. He also built many churches and monasteries through which he spread Christianity in Transylvania.[104][105]

Although Gavril Radomir's marriage to the daughter of the Hungarian ruler had established friendly relations between the two strongest states of the Danube area, the relationship deteriorated after Géza's death. The Bulgarians supported Gyula and Koppány as rulers instead of Géza's son Stephen I. As a result of this conflict, the marriage between Gavril Radomir and the Hungarian princess was dissolved. The Hungarians then attacked Ahtum, who had directly backed the pretenders for the Hungarian crown. Stephen I convinced Hanadin, Ahtum's right-hand man, to help in the attack. When the conspiracy was uncovered Hanadin fled and joined the Hungarian forces.[106] At the same time, a strong Byzantine army besieged Vidin, Ahtum's seat. Although many soldiers were required to participate in the defense of the town, Ahtum was occupied with the war to the north. After several months he died in battle when his troops were defeated by the Hungarians.[107] As a result of the war, Bulgarian influence to the northwest of the Danube diminished.

Further Byzantine successes

Victory of the Byzantines over the Bulgarians.

The Byzantines took advantage of the Bulgarian troubles in the north. In 1003, Basil II led a large army to Vidin, northwestern Bulgaria's most important town. After an eight-month siege, the Byzantines ultimately captured the fortress,

Adrianople and plundered the area.[110]

Basil II decided to return to Constantinople afterwards, but, fearing an encounter with the Bulgarian army on the main road to his capital, he used an alternate route.[

Krakra, was not seduced by Basil's promises of a noble title and wealth, and successfully defended the fortress. The Byzantines withdrew to Thrace after suffering heavy losses.[108][112]

In the same year, Samuel undertook a march against Thessaloniki. His men ambushed and captured its governor, Ioannes Chaldus,[100][113] but this success could not compensate for the losses the Bulgarians had suffered in the past four years. The setbacks in the war demoralized some of Samuel's military commanders, especially the captured Byzantine nobles. Samuel's son-in-law Ashot, the governor of Dyrrhachium, made contact with the local Byzantines and the influential John Chryselios, Samuel's father-in-law. Ashot and his wife boarded one of the Byzantine ships that were beleaguering the town and fled to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Chryselios surrendered the city to the Byzantine commander Eustathios Daphnomeles in 1005, securing the title of patrician for his sons.[92][114]

In 1006–1007, Basil II penetrated deep into the Bulgarian-ruled lands[115] and in 1009 Samuel's forces were defeated at Kreta, east of Thessaloniki.[116] During the next years, Basil launched annual campaigns into Bulgarian territory, devastating everything on his way.[117] Although there was still no decisive battle, it was clear that the end of the Bulgarian resistance was drawing nearer; the evidence was the fierceness of the military engagements and the constant campaigns of both sides which devastated the Bulgarian and Byzantine realms.[116][118][clarification needed]

Disaster at Kleidion

Main article: Battle of Kleidion
The battle of Kleidion.
The death of Emperor Samuel. Miniature from the Manasses Chronicle

In 1014, Samuel resolved to stop Basil before he could invade Bulgarian territory. Since the Byzantines usually used the valley of the

Strumitsa River for their invasions into Bulgaria, Samuel built a thick wooden wall in the gorges around the village of Klyuch
(also Kleidion, "key") to bar the enemy's way.

When Basil II launched his next campaign in the summer of 1014, his army suffered heavy casualties during the assaults on the wall. Meanwhile, Samuel sent forces under his general

ambush
by Gavril Radomir, who personally killed Botaniates. After the Battle of Kleidion, on the order of Basil II the captured Bulgarian soldiers were blinded; one of every 100 men was left one-eyed so as to lead the rest home.[123][124] The blinded soldiers were sent back to Samuel who reportedly had a heart attack upon seeing them. He died two days later, on 6 October 1014.[117] This savagery gave the Byzantine Emperor his byname Boulgaroktonos ("Bulgar-slayer" in Greek: Βουλγαροκτόνος). Some historians theorize it was the death of his favourite commander that infuriated Basil II to blind the captured soldiers.[125]

The themata of the Byzantine Empire, at the death of Basil II in 1025.

The battle of Kleidion had major political consequences. Although Samuel's son and successor, Gavril Radomir, was a talented military leader, he was murdered by his cousin Ivan Vladislav, who, ironically, owed his life to him. Unable to restore the Bulgarian Empire's previous power, Ivan Vladislav himself was killed while attacking Dyrrhachium. After that, the widowed empress

Mount Tomorr, before they too surrendered. Thus the First Bulgarian Empire came to an end in 1018, only four years after Samuel's death.[126] Most of its territory was incorporated within the new Theme of Bulgaria, with Skopje as its capital.[127]

In the extreme northwest, the duke of

Sermon, was the last remnant of the once mighty Empire. He was deceived and killed by the Byzantines in 1019.[128]

Family, grave and legacy

The remains of the Basilica of Agios Achillios in Lake Prespa, where Samuel's grave was found.
Prespa Fortess

Samuel's wife was called

Agatha, and was the daughter of the magnate of Dyrrhachium John Chryselios.[129] Only two of Samuel's and Agatha's children are definitely known by name: Samuel's heir Gavril Radomir and Miroslava. Two further, unnamed daughters, are mentioned after the Bulgarian surrender in 1018, while Samuel is also recorded as having had a bastard son.[129] Another woman, Kosara, who was wedded to Jovan Vladimir of Duklja and was considered by earlier scholarship as Samuel's daughter, is now regarded to have been simply a relative, perhaps a niece of Agatha.[130] Gavril Radomir married twice, to Ilona of Hungary and Irene from Larissa. Miroslava married the captured Byzantine noble Ashot Taronites
.

After the fall of Bulgaria, Samuel's descendants assumed important positions in the Byzantine court after they were resettled and given lands in Asia Minor and Armenia. One of his granddaughters, Catherine, became empress of Byzantium. Another (supposed) grandchild,

uprising in 1040 – 1041. Two other women of the dynasty became Byzantine empresses,[131] while many nobles served in the army as strategos
or became governors of various provinces.

Ripsimia
of Armenia
Agatha
Gavril
Radomir		MiroslavaUnknown daughterUnknown daughter
Ivan Vladislav
in Agios Achilios, Greece.
Samuel's Fortress overlooking the city of Ohrid, North Macedonia
The Bitola inscription written in Old Church Slavonic during the reign of Samuel's nephew Ivan Vladislav. He is titled "autocrat of the Bulgarians" and "Bulgarian by birth".

There is another version of Samuel's origin: the 11th-century historian Stepanos Asoghik wrote that Samuel had only one brother, stating they were both Armenians from the district of Derjan, an Armenian land incorporated into the Byzantine Empire. They were sent to fight the Bulgarians in Macedonia but ended up joining them.[132] This version is supported by the historian Nicholas Adontz, who analyzed the events and facts of the century and concluded that Samuel had only one brother, David.[133] Asoghik's version is also supported by the historian Jordan Ivanov;[134] furthermore, only one brother is mentioned on Samuel's Inscription.

The Arab historian Yahya of Antioch claims that the son of Samuel, Gavril, was assassinated by the leader of the Bulgarians, son of Aaron, because Aaron belonged to the race that reigned over Bulgaria. Asoghik and Yahya clearly distinguish the race of Samuel from the one of Aaron or the race of the Cometopuli from the royal race. According to them, Moses and Aaron are not from the family of the Cometopuli. David and Samuel were of Armenian origin and Moses and Aaron were Armenian on their mother's side.[135]

Samuel's grave was found in 1965 by Greek professor Nikolaos Moutsopoulos in the Church of St Achillios on the eponymous island in Lake Prespa. Samuel had built the church for the relics of the saint of the same name.[136] What is thought to have been the coat of arms of the House of Cometopuli,[137] two perched parrots, was embroidered on his funeral garment.

His remains are kept in the Museum of Byzantine Culture in Thessaloniki,[138] but according to a recent agreement, they may be returned to Bulgaria and buried in the SS. Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo, to rest with the remains of Emperors Kaloyan and Michael Shishman.[139]

Samuel's face was reconstructed to restore the appearance of the 70-year-old Bulgarian ruler. According to the reconstruction, he was a sharp-faced man, bald-headed, with a white beard and moustache.[140]

Samuel is among the most renowned Bulgarian rulers. His military struggle with the Byzantine Empire is marked as an epic period of Bulgarian history. The great number of monuments and memorials in Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia, such as the ones in Petrich and Ohrid, signify the trail this historical figure has left in the memory of the people. Four Bulgarian villages bear his name, as well as Samuel Point[141] on Livingston Island, Antarctica. Samuel is the main figure in at least three major Bulgarian novels by authors Dimitar Talev,[142] Anton Donchev and Stefan Tsanev and also stars in the Greek novel "At the Times of the Bulgarian-Slayer" by Penelope Delta, who closely follows the narrative flow of events as presented by St. Runciman.[143] He is mentioned in the verse of Ivan Vazov,[144] Pencho Slaveykov,[145] and Atanas Dalchev as well.[146]

Nomenclature

See also: Historiography in North Macedonia and Bulgaria–North Macedonia relations

Overview

Monument of Samuil in Skopje.

Samuel's empire had its heartlands in the modern

region of Macedonia, west and southwest of the city of Ohrid, this earlier cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire. After the area was taken in 1913 after five centuries Ottoman rule by the Kingdom of Serbia, (later Yugoslavia),[147][148] that has led to assertions by the nationalist-driven historiography there. Its main agenda was that Samuel's empire was a "Serbian"/"Macedonian Slavic" state, distinct from the Bulgarian Empire.[149] In more recent times the same agenda has been maintained in the Republic of Macedonia, (now North Macedonia).[150]

Practically Serbia did not exist at that time. It became independent under

Bulgaria.[155]

The very name of "Macedonia" for the modern region was revived only in the 19th century, after it had nearly disappeared during the five centuries of Ottoman rule.[156][157][158][159][160] Until the early 20th century and beyond the majority of the Macedonian Slavs who had clear ethnic consciousness believed they were Bulgarians.[161][162][163][164][165][166] The Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918) left the area divided mainly between Greece and Serbia (later Yugoslavia), which resulted in significant changes in its ethnic composition. The formerly leading Bulgarian community was reduced either by population exchanges or by change of communities' ethnic identity.[167] The Macedonian Slavs were faced with the policy of forced Serbianisation.[168]

Yugoslav agenda

20th-century Serbian and afterwards the Yugoslav historiography used the location of Samuel's state mainly on the territory of then Yugoslavia, to reject Bulgarian claims on the region.[169] Thus, the Russian-born Yugoslavian historian George Ostrogorsky distinguished Samuel's Empire from the Bulgarian Empire, referring to it as a "Macedonian Empire", although he recognised that Samuel's state was politically and ecclesiastically a direct descendant of the empire of Simeon I of Bulgaria and Peter I of Bulgaria, and it was regarded by Samuel and the Byzantines as being the Bulgarian Empire itself.[148]

Some historians of the same school, such as the Serbian scholar

SANU as Srđan Pirivatrić and Tibor Živković.[172][173][174] Pirivatrić has stated, that incipient Bulgarian identity was available in Samuel's state, and it will rеmain in the area in the next centuries.[175]

North Macedonia's view

These

Misians. The last designation arose because then Bulgaria occupied traditionally the lands of the former Roman province of Moesia.[179]

Macedonian historians insist also that the emperor Basil II designated the enemies coming from the Samuel’s Empire as “Scythians” in his epitaph and that the designation “Bulgaria” was used for ideological propaganda. This was newly introduced administrative term, by which the emperor ideologically framed the newly acquired territories of the former Bulgarian empire and the former Samuel’s State. In this way the term "Bulgarian" became a projected name for the Samuel’s State itself.[180][181] However, the term “Scythians” normally referred to the "Bulgarians",[182][183] moreover, Samuel and his successors considered their state Bulgarian.[184][185]

Nevertheless, on a meeting in Sofia in June 2017, Prime Ministers

Tsar of Bulgaria.[187][188][189][190] Nevertheless in December 2020 North Macedonia's part from the joint committee withdrew from this decision.[191] According to its view, Tsar Samuel had to be portrayed in one way in North Macedonia's textbooks, and in another during joint commemorations.[192]

In August 2022, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of North Macedonia published official recommendations of the Joint Historical Commission operating between the two countries. There, the governments in Sofia and Skopje are offered a joint commemoration of Samuel, who, according to the commission, was the ruler of a large medieval state, which the majority of modern historical scholarship considers to be the Bulgarian empire itself, centered in the territory of today's North Macedonia.[193] In this way the Macedonian members of the Commission not only agreed to identify Samuel's state as Bulgarian, but they also recognized the existence of the Bulgarian ethnicity during the Middle Ages.[194] Despite these facts multiple examples of animosity between Bulgaria and North Macedonia have been registered, due to disputes over Samuil's ethnic affiliation and this issue is still highly sensitive.[195][196]

See also

Footnotes

1. Bulgarian ъ can be transliterated a, u, or sometimes â, as in български, balgarski (as below) or bulgarski.
2. The work of Vasil Zlatarski, History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages has three editions. The first edition is from 1927 published in Sofia; the second edition is from 1971 and can be found here [3] in Bulgarian; the third edition is from 1994 published in Sofia,
ISBN 954-430-299-9

References

  1. ISBN 0521815398
    , p. 242.
  2. ^ Spelled thus in Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans; also Ostrogorsky, Treadgold, opp. cit., Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. In French, compare Adontz, Nicholas. "Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares", in Études Arméno-Byzantines. Lisbonne: Livraria Bertrand, 1965, pp. 347–407.
  3. ISBN 978-608-203-024-1
    . стр. 1296
  4. ISSN 0583-4961
    .
  5. ISBN 0804726302
    , p. 871.
  6. ISBN 0190253223
    , p. 82.
  7. Roman I of Bulgaria, who was the official tsar until 997, when he died in Byzantine captivity. Roman is mentioned as tsar in several historical sources; for example the Annals by Yahya of Antioch call Roman "Tsar" and Samuel "Roman's loyal military chief". However, other historians dispute this theory, as Roman was castrated and so technically could not have claimed the crown. There was also a governor of Skopje called Roman who surrendered the city to the Byzantines in 1004, receiving the title of patrician from Basil II and becoming a Byzantine strategos in Abydus (Skylitzes
    -Cedr. II, 455, 13), but this could be a mere coincidence of names.
  8. ^ a b "Samuil of Bulgaria". Archived from the original on 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
  9. ^ "Britannica Online – Samuel of Bulgaria". Retrieved 2008-05-23.
  10. ^ Whittow, Making of Orthodox Byzantium, pp. 387–388.
  11. ISBN 0-521-81530-4
  12. ^ Sullivan. D. F., ed. and tr., The life of St Nikon, Brookline, 1987, pp. 140–142.
  13. ^ a b Argoe, K. John Kyriotes Geometres, a tenth century Byzantine writer, Madison 1938, pp. 140–141.
  14. ^ Schlumberger, G, L'épopée byzantine á la fin de dixiéme siécle, 1. Jean Tzimisés; les jeunes années de Basile II, le tueur de Bulgares (969–989), Paris 1896, pp. 643–644.
  15. ^ a b "The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001. First Bulgarian Empire – Samuil". Archived from the original on April 17, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
  16. ^ "About Ohrid". Retrieved 2008-05-23.[dead link]
  17. ISBN 0-8095-9240-1
    , p. 142.
  18. ISBN 0-521-09531-X
    , p. 140
  19. ^ Stephen Runciman, A History of the First Bulgarian Empire, pp. 217–218.
  20. OCLC 11193528.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  21. ^ Southeastern Europe in the early Middle Ages. Florin Curta. p. 241
  22. ^ Adontz, Nicholas (1938). "Samuel l'Armenien, roi des Bulgares". Mar BCLSMP (in French) (39): 37.
  23. ^ According to Zlatarski (History of the Bulgarian state, I, 2, pp. 544, 562.) the sons of Peter I were sent in the Byzantine capital in 963 as one of the term to resettle the peace treaty of 927. According to other historians such as Andreev (Who is who in Medieval Bulgaria, p. 41.) the heirs to the Bulgarian throne became hostages per a Bulgarian-Byzantine agreement against the Kievan Rus' in 968.
  24. ^ Skylitzes records: He [Peter] himself died shortly afterwards, whereupon the sons were sent to Bulgaria to secure the ancestral throne and to restrain the 'children of the counts' from further t. David, Moses, Aaron and Samuel, children of one of the powerful counts in Bulgaria, were contemplating an uprising and were unsettling the Bulgars'
  25. ^ Blagoeva, B. For the origins of Emperor Samuel (Za proizhoda na tsar Samuil, За произхода на цар Самуил), Исторически преглед, № 2, 1966, стр. 91–94
  26. Cometopuli
    ) make their first appearance under the government of Kekaumenos, the strategos of Larissa ... (980–983)": Adontz. "Samuel l'Armenien", 358.
  27. ^ Ioannes Scylitzes. Historia. 2, pp. 346–347
  28. ISBN 9004352996
    , p. 156.
  29. ^ a b Delev, 12. The decline of the First Bulgarian Empire ( 12. Zalezat na Parvoto Balgarsko Tsarstvo 12. Залезът на Първото българско царство).
  30. ^ a b c d Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, 1999, pp. 314–315.
  31. ^ Petrov, P (1962). "Rebellion of Peter and Boyan in 976 and struggle of the Cometopuli with Byzantium (Vosstanie Petra i Boyana v 976 i borba Komitopulov s Vizantiei, Восстание Петра и Бояна в 976 г. и борьба Комитопулов с Византией)". Byzantinobulgarica (in Russian) (1): 130–132.
  32. ^ Zlatarski, p. 615.
  33. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 334–335.
  34. ^ П. Хр. Петров, Восстание Петра и Бояна в 976 г. и борьба комитопулов с Византией, Byzantinobulgarica, I, Sofia, 1962, стр. 121–144.
  35. ^ Й. Иванов, „Български старини из Македония“, София, 1970, стр. 550
  36. ^ Levchenko, М. V (1951). Precious sources on the Russo-Byzantine relations in the 9th century (Tsenniy istochnih po vaprosu pussko-vizantiyskih otnosheniy v X veke, Ценный источних по вопросу русско-византийских отношений в X веке (in Russian). pp. 66–68.
  37. ^ Nikolov, G., Centralism and regionalism in Bulgaria during the early Middle ages (end of the 7th— beginning of the 11th century (Tsentralizam i regionalizam v rannosrednovekovna Balgariya (kraya na VII— nachaloto na XI v.), Централизъм и регионализъм в ранносредновековна България (края на VII— началото на ХІ в.)), София 2005, p. 195.
  38. OCLC 74302950
    .
  39. ^ Petrov, p. 133.
  40. ^ Petrov, pp. 133–134.
  41. ^ General history of Stephan from Taron (Vseobshaya istoriya Stepanosa Taronskogo, Всеобщая история Степаноса Таронского (in Russian). pp. 175–176.
  42. ^ Scylitzes, pp. 434–435. In this context, by "Romans" Skylitzes understands "Byzantines".
  43. ^ Petrov, P (1959). "Formation and consolidation of the Western Bulgarian state (Obrazuvane i ukrepvane na Zapadnata Balgarska darzhava, Образуване и укрепване на Западната Българска държава)". Гсуифф (in Bulgarian). 53 (2): 169–170.
  44. ^ Seibt, Untersuchungen, p. 90.
  45. ISBN 978-0-902089-39-6
    .
  46. Krum
    (803–814)
  47. ^ Petrov, p. 134
  48. ^ Adontz. "Samuel l'Armenien", p. 353.
  49. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 434–435.
  50. ^ Prokić, p. 28.
  51. ISBN 978-0-902089-39-6
    .
  52. ^ Petrov, P (1958). "On the question concerning the authenticity of the Virgin charter and the data it contains (Po vaprosa za awtentichnostta na Virginskata gramota i sadarzhastite se v neya danni, По въпроса за автентичността на Виргинската грамота и съдържащите се в нея данни)". Гсуифф (in Bulgarian). 2 (54): 219–225.
  53. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 435–436.
  54. ^ Kekaumenos, Strategikon pp. 65–66
  55. ^ Skylitzes, p. 436.
  56. ^ Kekaumenos, Strategikon, eds. B. Wassilewsky and P. Jernstedt, St Petersburg, 1896, pp. 65–66.
  57. ^ Litavrin, G. Soveti i rasskazy Kekavmena. Sochinenie vizantiiskogo polkovodtsa XI veka, Moscow, 1972, pp. 250–252
  58. ^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije, Исторijа Византиje), pp. 391–393.
  59. ^ Leo Diaconus, Historia, p. 171.
  60. ^ W. Seibt, Untersuchungen zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte der bulgarischen Kometopulen, Handes Amsorya 89 (1975), pp. 65–98.
  61. ^ Rozen, p. 21.
  62. ^ Stephen of Taron, pp. 185–186.[? clarification needed]
  63. ^ Dennis, Three Treatises, pp. 242–243.
  64. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 436–438.
  65. OCLC 79291155.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  66. ^ Ioannis Geometrae Carmina varia. Migne, Patrol. gr., t. 106, col. 934
  67. ^ "Roman Emperors – Basil II". Archived from the original on 2015-03-13. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
  68. ^ Al-Rudrawari, pp. 28–35.
  69. ^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije, Исторijа Византиje), pp. 397–398.
  70. ^ E Codd. Manuscriptis Bibliothecae Regiae Parisiensis, J.A.Cramer (ed.), 4 Vols (Oxford, 1839–1841), Vol 4, pp. 271, 282.
  71. ^ Rozen, p. 27.
  72. ^ Skylitzes, p. 446.
  73. ^ John Geometres: Anecdota Graeca, E Codd. Manuscriptis Bibliothecae Regiae Parisiensis, J.A.Cramer (ed.), 4 Vols (Oxford, 1839–1841), Vol 4, pp. 271–273, 282–283.
  74. ^ Zlatarski, pp. 645–647.
  75. ^ Vasilyevskiy, V. G. History of the years 976–986 (K istorii 976–986 godov, К истории 976–986 годов) (in Russian). p. 83.
  76. ^ Ioannes Geometer. Carmina, col. 920A.
  77. ^ Ostrogorsky, Byzantine State, pp. 303–308
  78. ^ Zlatarski, pp. 651–652.
  79. ^ Yahya, PO 23 (1932), pp. 430–431.
  80. ^ Stephen of Taron, p. 198.[? clarification needed]
  81. ^ Rozen, p. 34.
  82. ^ Skylitzes, p. 449
  83. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 449–450
  84. ^ Skylitzes, p. 450
  85. ISBN 0-521-81530-4
  86. ^ Andreev, 1999, pp. 331–334.
  87. ^ Rozen, p. 43.
  88. ^ Шишић 1928, p. 330.
  89. ^ Duichev, Iv. (1942). "Correspondence of Pope Innocent III with the Bulgarians (Prepiska na papa Inokentii III s balgarite, Преписка на папа Инокентий III с българите.)". Гсуифф (in Bulgarian) (38): 22–23. There is no direct evidence for this recognition, but in his correspondence with Pope Innocent III two centuries later, the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan pointed out that his predecessors Peter and Samuel had received imperial recognition by Rome.
  90. ^ a b Шишић 1928, p. 331.
  91. ^ Шишић 1928, p. 334.
  92. ^ a b Skylitzes, p. 451.
  93. OCLC 23538214
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  94. ^ Holmes, Basil II and the government of the empire, vii, pp. 264–265.
  95. ^ Antoljak, Samuel and his estate, pp. 78–80.
  96. ^ R. V. Rozen, Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer (Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa, Император Василий Болгаробойца), p. 34.
  97. ISBN 954-427-216-X
  98. ^ Skylitzes, p. 452.
  99. ^ Ibidem. II, р. 452.
  100. ^ a b c Prokić, p. 30.
  101. ^ Zonaras, ibid., IV, pp. 118–119.
  102. ^ Skyl. – Cedr., ibid., II, pp. 452–453.
  103. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 452–454.
  104. ^ Legenda Saneti Gerhardi episcopi, p. 489.
  105. ^ Venedikov, p. 150.
  106. ^ Legenda Saneti Gerhardi episcopi, pp. 492–493.
  107. ^ Venedikov, pp. 151–152.
  108. ^ a b Skylitzes, p. 454.
  109. OCLC 3736478
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  110. ^ Skylitzes, pp. 454–455.
  111. ^ Skylitzes, p. 455.
  112. ^ Zlatarski, pp. 685–687.
  113. ^ Actes d'Iviron I. Des origines au milieu du XIe siècle, Archives de l'Athos XIV, eds. J.Lefort, N.Oikonomides, D.Papachryssanthou, H.Métrévéli (Paris, 1985), doc. 8
  114. ^ Ostrogorsky, G. History of the Byzantine state (Istorija Vizantije, Исторijа Византиje), pp. 404–405.
  115. ^ Gilferding, p. 250.
  116. ^ a b Златарски, pp. 689–690.
  117. ^ a b c Skylitzes, p. 457.
  118. ^ Daulaurier, p. 37.
  119. ^ Selected sources for the Bulgarian history, Volume II: The Bulgarian states and the Bulgarians in the Middle Ages (Podbrani izvori za balgarskata istoriya, Tom II: Balgarskite darzhavi i balgarite prez srednovekovieto, Подбрани извори за българската история, Том II: Българските държави и българите през средновековието), p. 66.
  120. ^ Пириватрич, Самуиловата държава, p. 136.
  121. OCLC 8553856
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  122. ^ Conquest of Bulgaria by Byzantium (end of the 10th-beginning of the 11th century) in the Russian chronography, HV-XVI c. (Zavoevenie Bolgarii Vizantiei (konets X-nachalo XI v.) v russkom hronografe, HV-XVI vv; ЗАВОЕВАНИЕ БОЛГАРИИ ВИЗАНТИЕЙ (КОНЕЦ Х-НАЧАЛО XI в.) В РУССКОМ ХРОНОГРАФЕ, XV-XVI вв.) L. V. Gorina (Moscow State University)- in Russian [1]
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  124. ^ Cecaumenes. Strategion, pp. 65–66.
  125. ^ Zlatarski, p. 699.
  126. ^ Pavlov, Plamen (2002). Emperor Samuil and the "Bulgarian epopee" (in Bulgarian). Sofia, Veliko Tarnovo: VMRO Rusa. Archived from the original on May 25, 2009.
  127. ^ Themes in the Byzantine Empire under Basil II Themes under Basil II Archived 2013-10-19 at the Wayback Machine
  128. ^ Zlatarski, pp. 742–744.
  129. ^ a b PmbZ, Samuel Kometopulos (#26983).
  130. ^ PmbZ, Kosara (#24095).
  131. ^ "V. Zlatarski – Istorija 1 B – Priturka 15". Retrieved 2008-09-10.
  132. Asoghik
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  134. ^ Иванов, Йордан (Jordan Ivanov). Произход на цар Самуиловия род (The origin of the family of the king Samuel). In: Сборник в чест на В. Н. Златарски, София, 1925.
  135. ^ Adontz. "Samuel l'Armenien", pp. 387–390.
  136. ^ "Prof. Kazimir Popkonstantinov: The offer for exchange of Samuel's remains is a provocation from Greece" (in Bulgarian). "Focus" Agency. 2007-02-15. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
  137. ^ Edouard Selian. The Coat of Arms of Emperor Samuel. In: American Chronicle, March 21, 2009 The Coat of Arms of Emperor Samuel and Macedonian Digest, Edition 40 – April 2009 [2]
  138. ^ (in Greek) Σταύρος Τζίμας (7 October 2014). "Τα οστά του Σαμουήλ, η ανταλλαγή και το παρασκήνιο". Καθημερινή; Retrieved 7 October 2014
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  147. ^ a b Anastasiević, D. N. Hypothesis on Western Bulgaria (Hipoteza o Zapadnoj Bugarskoj, Хипотеза о Западноj Бугарскоj), Glasnik Skopskog nauchnog drushtva, b. III, Skopie, 1928.
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  158. ISBN 1444314831
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  159. ISBN 0521274591
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  161. ISBN 0472081497
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  162. ISBN 0-691-04356-6
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  163. ISBN 1-85065-492-1
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  164. ISBN 0208008217
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  165. ISBN 0191528722
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  167. ISBN 0801494931
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Sources

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Samuil of Bulgaria.
Preceded by
Roman
 Emperor of Bulgaria
997–1014
(de facto since 976) 		Succeeded by
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