Sara Josephine Baker

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Sara Josephine Baker
New York Infirmary Medical College
Known forpublic health, preventive medicine
AwardsAssistant Surgeon General,
first woman appointed as Professional Representative to the League of Nations

Sara Josephine Baker (November 15, 1873 – February 22, 1945) was an American physician notable for making contributions to public health, especially in the immigrant communities of New York City. Her fight against the damage that widespread urban poverty and ignorance caused to children, especially newborns, is perhaps her most lasting legacy.[1] In 1917, she noted that babies born in the United States faced a higher mortality rate than soldiers fighting in World War I, drawing a great deal of attention to her cause.[2] She also is known for (twice) tracking down Mary Mallon, better known as Typhoid Mary.

Early life

Baker was born in

typhoid, Baker felt pressure to support her mother and sister financially.[3][4] So, at the age of 16, Baker decided on a career in medicine.[5][6]

After studying chemistry and biology at home, she enrolled in the

Elizabeth Blackwell and Emily Blackwell.[7] The only class she failed—"The Normal Child", taught by Anne Daniel—led to her fascination with the future recipient of her attention, "that little pest, the normal child".[1] Upon graduation as second in her class in 1898, Baker began a year-long internship at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston.[1][8]

Baker began practicing as a private physician in New York City following her internship.[9] In 1901, Baker passed the civil service exam and qualified to be a medical inspector at the Department of Health, and worked as a part-time inspector in 1902.[10] Known as "Dr. Joe," she wore masculine-tailored suits and joked that colleagues forgot that she was a woman.[11]

Career

The way to keep people from dying from disease, it struck me suddenly, was to keep them from falling ill. Healthy people don't die. It sounds like a completely witless remark, but at that time it was a startling idea. Preventative medicine had hardly been born yet and had no promotion in public health work.

— Sara Josephine Baker, Fighting For Life, page 83

After working diligently in the school system, Baker was offered an opportunity to help lower the mortality rate in Hell's Kitchen. It was considered the worst slum in New York at the turn of the century, with as many as 4,500 people dying every week. Baker decided to focus on the infant mortality rate in particular, as babies accounted for some 1,500 of the weekly deaths. Most of the infant deaths were caused by dysentery, though parental ignorance and poor hygiene were often indirectly to blame.[3]

Baker and a group of nurses started to train mothers in how to care for their babies: how to clothe infants to keep them from getting too hot, how to feed them a good diet, how to keep them from suffocating in their sleep, and how to keep them clean.[1][12] She set up a milk station where clean milk was given out. Commercial milk at that time was often contaminated, or mixed with chalky water to improve colour and maximize profit. Baker also invented an infant formula made out of water, calcium carbonate, lactose, and cow milk.[13] This enabled mothers to go to work so they could support their families.

Baker aided in the prevention of infant

blindness, a scourge caused by gonorrhea bacteria transmitted during birth. To prevent blindness, babies were given drops of silver nitrate in their eyes. Before Baker arrived, the bottles in which the silver nitrate was kept would often become unsanitary or would contain doses that were so highly concentrated that they would do more harm than good. Baker designed and used small containers made out of antibiotic beeswax that each held a single dose of silver nitrate, so the medication would stay at a known level of concentration and could not be contaminated.[5][12]

Through Josephine Baker's efforts, infants were much safer than they had been the previous year; blindness decreased from 300 babies per year to 3 per year.

midwives, who were excluded from the formal training available to doctors. Baker convinced New York City to license midwives to ensure some degree of quality and expertise.[15]

While Baker was campaigning to license midwives, treat blindness, encourage breastfeeding, provide safe pasteurized milk, and educate mothers, older children were still getting sick and malnourished. Baker worked to make sure each school had its own doctor and nurse, and that the children were routinely checked for infestations. This system worked so well that head lice and the eye infection trachoma, diseases once rampant in schools, became almost non-existent.[13]

Early in her career, Baker had twice helped to catch

typhoid, who instigated several separate outbreaks of the disease and is known to have infected more than 50 people through her job as a cook. At least three of the people she infected died.[17] Mallon was not the only repeat offender nor the only typhoid-contagious cook in New York City at the time, but she was unique in that she did not suffer any ill-effects of the disease and in that she was ultimately the only patient placed in isolation for the rest of her life.[18]

Professional recognition

Josephine Baker was becoming famous, so much so that

New York University Medical School asked her to lecture there on children's health, or "child hygiene", as it was known at the time. Baker said she would if she could also enroll in the school. The school initially turned her down, but eventually acquiesced after looking unsuccessfully for a male lecturer to match her knowledge.[4][19] In 1917, Baker became the first woman to receive a doctorate in public health.[20]

After the United States entered

4F (not eligible for draft due to poor health) as a motivating factor for support in her work on improving the health of children.[citation needed
]

Baker was offered a job in London as health director of public schools, a job in France taking care of war refugees, and a job in the United States as Assistant Surgeon General.[19]

Personal life

Baker spent much of the later part of her life with

Helen Epstein postulates that Wylie may have helped Baker write her autobiography.[1] Beyond the memoir, little is known about Baker's life, as she "appears to have destroyed all her personal papers."[1][23]

Retirement

In 1923, Baker retired, but she did not stop working.[22][24] She became the first woman to be a professional representative to the League of Nations when she served on the Health Committee for the United States from 1922 to 1924.[4] She was also active in many groups and societies including over twenty-five medical societies and the New York State Department of Health. She became the president of the American Medical Women's Association and wrote four books, an autobiography, and 250 articles across the professional and popular press.[13][25]

Sara Josephine Baker died from cancer on February 22, 1945, in New York City.[4][24]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Epstein, Helen (September 26, 2013). "The doctor who made a revolution". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved September 13, 2013.
  2. ^ R. Morantz-Sanchez, "Sara Josephine Baker", American National Biography. Vol. 2. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 32–34.
  3. ^ a b "Sara Josephine Baker." Notable Scientists: From 1900 to the Present. Online. Gale Group, 2008.
  4. ^ a b c d "Sara Josephine Baker Facts". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Gale Group. 2010. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  5. ^ .
  6. ^ Baker, Sara Josephine. Fighting for Life, 1939.
  7. ^ "Sara Josephine Baker." World of Health. Thomson Gale, 2006.
  8. .
  9. ^ Parry, Manon S. "Sara Josephine Baker (1873–1945)." American Journal of Public Health. 2006, Apr. 2006. Web.
  10. ^ McNeill, Leila. "S.J. Baker: The woman who transformed public health". www.bbc.com. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
  11. ^ "Revolt, They Said". www.andreageyer.info. Retrieved June 19, 2017.
  12. ^ .
  13. ^ a b c "Sara Josephine Baker: Physician and Public Health Worker, 1873–1945". July 28, 2012. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  14. ^ DeBakcsy, Dale (May 23, 2018). "Dr. Sara Josephine Baker And The Fight For Child Hygiene". Women You Should Know®. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
  15. ^ "Changing the Face of Medicine | Dr. S. Josephine Baker". www.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  16. ^ "Outwitting 'Typhoid Mary' – Hektoen International". hekint.org. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
  17. ^ "'TYPHOID MARY' DIES OF A STROKE AT 68" (PDF). The New York Times. November 12, 1938. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 29, 2013. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
  18. .
  19. ^ a b Miss Cellania (April 8, 2013). "The Amazing Dr. Baker". Neatorama. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  20. ^ Zuger, Abigail (October 28, 2013). "A Life in Pursuit of Health". The New York Times. Retrieved February 14, 2020.
  21. ^ Robertson, Patrick, ed. (1974). Shell Book of Firsts. London: Ebury Press.
  22. ^
    PMID 11772756
    .
  23. ^ "Politics and Personal Life · Sara Josephine Baker: Public Health Pioneer · outhistory.org". outhistory.org. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  24. ^ a b "Sara Josephine Baker: American physician". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  25. PMC 1470556
    .

Further reading

External links