Sarawak
Sarawak | |
---|---|
State of Sarawak Negeri Sarawak (Malay) | |
Nickname(s): | |
Motto(s): Bersatu, Berusaha, Berbakti United, Striving, Serving | |
Anthem: Ibu Pertiwiku My Motherland[2] | |
Coordinates: 2°30′N 113°00′E / 02.5°N 113.0°E | |
Country | Malaysia |
Sultanate of Sarawak | 1599 |
Raj of Sarawak | 24 September 1841 |
Japanese occupation | 16 September 1941 |
Crown colony | 1 July 1946 |
Self-governance granted | 22 July 1963[3][4] |
Federated into Malaysia | 16 September 1963[5][6] |
Capital (and largest city) | Kuching |
Divisions | |
Government | |
• Type | Dominant-party parliamentary representative democracy |
• Yang di-Pertua Negeri | Wan Junaidi Tuanku Jaafar |
• Premier | Abang Abdul Rahman Johari (GPS–PBB) |
Legislature | Legislative Assembly (82 seats) |
Federal representation | Parliament of Malaysia |
• Dewan Rakyat seats | 31 of 222 (14.0%) |
• Dewan Negara seats | 2 of 70 (2.9%) |
Area | |
• Total | 124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi) |
Highest elevation | 2,424 m (7,953 ft) |
Population | |
• Total | 2,907,500 (5th) |
• Density | 23/km2 (60/sq mi) |
Demonym | Sarawakian |
Languages | |
• Official | |
• Other spoken | |
Demographics (2023) | |
• Ethnic group[10] | |
• Religions[8] |
|
QA to QT[15] | |
HDI (2022) | 0.824[16] very high · 5th |
GDP (nominal) | 2022 |
• Total | $45.405 billion (RM 199.786 billion)[17] (3rd) |
• Per capita | $18,377 (RM 80,857)[17] (3rd) |
GDP (PPP) | 2022 |
• Total | $88.709 billion (3rd) |
• Per capita | $51,175 (3rd) |
Driving side | Left |
Electricity voltage | 230 V, 50 Hz |
Currency | Malaysian ringgit (RM/MYR) |
Website | Official website |
Sarawak (
The earliest known human settlement in Sarawak at the
The head of state is the Governor, also known as the
Because of its natural resources, Sarawak specialises in the export of oil and gas,
Etymology
The generally-accepted explanation of the state's name is that it is derived from the
Sarawak is nicknamed "Land of the Hornbills" (Bumi Kenyalang). These birds are important cultural symbols for the Dayak people, representing the spirit of God. It is also believed that if a hornbill is seen flying over residences, it will bring good luck to the local community. Sarawak has eight of the world's fifty-four species of hornbills, and the Rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak.[28]
History
Foragers are known to have lived around the west mouth of the
The settlement known as Vijayapura was a vassal-state to the Buddhist
In the 14th century, the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the constituent state of Hindu Majapahit,[44] which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor. In 1369, Sulu which was also formerly part of Majapahit, had successfully rebelled and then attacked Boni, and had invaded the Northeast Coast of Borneo[45] and afterwards had looted the capital of its treasure and gold including sacking two sacred pearls. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Boni was left weaker after the attack.[46] A Chinese report from 1371 described Boni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit.[47]
The
The discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region led
The Brooke family, later called the White Rajahs, set about expanding the territory they had been ceded.[57]
With expansion came the need for efficient governance and thus, beginning in 1841, Sarawak was separated into the first of its administrative divisions
Between 1853 and 1862, there were a number of uprisings against the Brooke government but all were successfully contained with the aid of local tribes.[61] To guard against future uprisings, a series of forts were constructed to protect Kuching, including Fort Margherita, completed in 1871. By that time Brooke's control of Sarawak was such that defences were largely unnecessary.[64]
A centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak was held in 1941. During the celebration, a
Sarawak remained part of the
Lacking the resources to rebuild Sarawak after the war, Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as British Crown Colony
On 27 May 1961,
A number of communist groups existed in Sarawak, the first of which, the Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League, formed in 1951.[53][note 4] Another group, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) (also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources) was formally set up in 1970.[94] Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were two of the more notable communist leaders involved in the insurgency. As the political scene changed, it grew progressively more difficult for the communists to operate. This led to Bong opening talks with chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub in 1973 and eventually signing an agreement with the government. Weng, who had moved to China in the mid-1960s but nonetheless retained control of the CCO, pushed for a continued armed insurrection against the government in spite of this agreement. The conflict continued mostly in the Rajang Delta region but eventually ended when, on 17 October 1990, the NKCP signed a peace agreement with the Sarawak government.[95][96]
Politics
Government
Affiliation | Leader in the Assembly | Status | Current seats (2021 election) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS) | Abang Abdul Rahman Zohari Abang Openg
|
Government | 76 | |
Parti Sarawak Bersatu (PSB) | Wong Soon Koh | Opposition | 4 | |
Pakatan Harapan (PH) | Chong Chieng Jen | 2 | ||
Total | 82 | |||
Government majority | 70 |
The head of the Sarawak state is the
To protect the interests of the Sarawakians in the Malaysian federation, special safeguards have been included in the Constitution of Malaysia. These include: control over immigration in and out of the state as well as the residence status of non-Sarawakians and Sabahans, limitations on the practice of law to resident lawyers, independence of the Sarawak High Court from the High Court Peninsular Malaysia, a requirement that the Sarawak Chief Minister be consulted prior to the appointment of the chief judge of the Sarawak High Court, the existence of Native Courts in Sarawak and the power to levy sales tax. Natives in Sarawak enjoy special privileges such as quotas and employment in public service, scholarships, university placements, and business permits.[101] Local governments in Sarawak are exempt from local council laws enacted by the Malaysian parliament.[102] This level of autonomy means Sarawak is sometimes referred to as a "region", to differentiate it from less autonomous states.[103]
Major political parties in Sarawak can be divided into three categories: native Sarawak Bumiputera (PBB and PBM), native Sarawak Dayak (PRS, PDP, PBDSB, etc.), and non-Bumiputera (SUPP, PSB, PBK, etc.); Parties, however, may also include members from more than one group.
In 1969, the
Since the
On 12 June 2018, the
Administrative divisions
Unlike states in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak is divided into 12 divisions, each headed by an appointed resident.[97][121][122]
Administrative divisions of Sarawak | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UPI code[123] | Divisions | Population (2020 census) |
Area (km2) |
Seat | Districts (subdistricts)
|
Local governments |
1301 | Kuching | 812,900 | 1,794.18 | Kuching | 3 (5) | 5 |
1302 | Sri Aman | 111,500 | 5,466.25 | Simanggang | 2 (5) | 2 |
1303 | Sibu | 350,700 | 8,278.3 | Sibu | 3 | 3 |
1304 | Miri | 433,800 | 26,777 | Miri | 5 (11) | 3 |
1305 | Limbang | 103,100 | 7,790 | Limbang | 2 (5) | 2 |
1306 | Sarikei | 139,500 | 4,332.4 | Sarikei | 4 | 2 |
1307 | Kapit | 155,900 | 38,934 | Kapit | 4 (6) | 3 |
1308 | Samarahan | 187,500 | 2,927.5 | Kota Samarahan | 3 (5) | 2 |
1309 | Bintulu | 266,300 | 12,166.2 | Bintulu | 3 | 1 |
1310 | Betong | 129,000 | 4,180.8 | Betong | 4 (9) | 2 |
1311 | Mukah | 134,900 | 6,997.61 | Mukah | 5 (8) | 2 |
1312 | Serian | 105,800 | 2,039.9 | Serian
|
2 (3) | 1 |
Note: Population data for Serian Division not including Siburan subdistrict which was formerly a part of Kuching Division. |
On 26 November 2015, it was announced that the Kuching Division district of Serian would become Sarawak's 12th division and it had officiated by Adenan Satem at its formal creation on 11 April 2015.[124]
A division is divided into districts, each headed by a district officer, which are in turn divided into sub-districts, each headed by a Sarawak Administrative Officer (SAO). There is also one development officer for each division and district to implement development projects. The state government appoints a headman (known as ketua kampung or penghulu) for each village.[97][121] There are a total of 26 sub-districts in Sarawak all under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Ministry of Local Government and Community Development.[125] The list of divisions, districts, sub-districts and their local authorities is shown in the table below:[126]
Division | District | Subdistrict | Local government |
---|---|---|---|
Kuching | Kuching | Padawan | Kuching North City Hall |
Bau | Bau District Council | ||
Lundu | Sematan | Lundu District Council | |
Samarahan | Samarahan | Kota Samarahan Municipal Council | |
Asajaya | Sadong Jaya | ||
Simunjan | Simunjan District Council | ||
Gedong | |||
Sebuyau | |||
Serian[124] | Serian | Balai Ringin | Serian District Council |
Siburan | |||
Tebedu | |||
Sri Aman | Simanggang | Sri Aman District Council | |
Lingga | |||
Pantu | |||
Lubok Antu | Engkilili | Lubok Antu District Council | |
Betong | Betong | Spaoh | Betong District Council |
Debak | |||
Pusa | Maludam | ||
Saratok | Nanga Budu | Saratok District Council | |
Kabong | Roban | ||
Sarikei | Sarikei | Sarikei District Council | |
Meradong | Maradong Julau District Council | ||
Julau | |||
Pakan | |||
Mukah | Mukah | Balingian | Dalat Mukah District Council |
Dalat | Oya
| ||
Matu | Igan | Matu Daro District Council | |
Daro | |||
Tanjung Manis | |||
Sibu | Sibu | Sibu Municipal Council | |
Selangau | |||
Kanowit | Kanowit District Council | ||
Kapit | Kapit | Nanga Merit | Kapit District Council |
Song
| |||
Belaga | Sungai Asap | ||
Bukit Mabong | |||
Bintulu | Bintulu | Bintulu Development Authority | |
Sebauh | |||
Tatau | |||
Miri | Miri | Bario | Miri City Council |
Subis | Niah-Suai | Subis District Council | |
Marudi | Mulu
|
Marudi District Council | |
Beluru | Lapok | ||
Telang Usan | Long Lama | ||
Long Bedian | |||
Limbang | Limbang | Nanga Medamit | Limbang District Council |
Lawas | Sundar | Lawas District Council | |
Trusan |
Security
Military
The first paramilitary armed forces in Sarawak, a regiment formed by the Brooke regime in 1862, were known as the
In 1888, Sarawak, together with neighbouring
Territorial disputes
Several border disputes between Malaysia and its neighbouring countries concern Sarawak. Land and maritime disputes exist with Brunei.
Geography
The total land area of Sarawak is nearly 124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi),
Sarawak has a
Sarawak is divided into three ecoregions. The coastal region is rather low-lying and flat with large areas of swamp and other wet environments. Beaches in Sarawak include Pasir Panjang[144] and Damai beaches in Kuching,[145] Tanjung Batu beach in Bintulu,[146] and Tanjung Lobang[147] and Hawaii beaches in Miri.[148] Hilly terrain accounts for much of the inhabited land and is where most of the cities and towns are found. The ports of Kuching and Sibu are built some distance from the coast on rivers while Bintulu and Miri are close to the coastline where the hills stretch right to the South China Sea. The third region is the mountainous region along the Sarawak–Kalimantan border, where a number of villages such as Bario, Ba'kelalan, and Usun Apau Plieran are located.[140] A number of rivers flow through Sarawak, with the Sarawak River being the main river flowing through Kuching. The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia, measuring 563 km (350 mi) including its tributary, Balleh River. To the north, the Baram, Limbang and Trusan Rivers drain into the Brunei Bay.[140]
Sarawak can be divided into two geological zones: the
There are thirty national parks,
-
Pinnacles at Gunung Mulu National Park
-
The vegetations at the summit of Mount Murud
-
South China Sea view from Sarawak
-
Parts of the Bako National Park
Biodiversity
Sarawak contains large tracts of
Animal species are also highly varied, with 185 species of mammals, 530 species of birds, 166 species of snakes, 104 species of lizards, and 113 species of amphibians, of which 19 per cent of the mammals, 6 per cent of the birds, 20 per cent of the snakes and 32 per cent of the lizards are
The Sarawak state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species. Some of the protected species are the orangutan, green sea turtle, flying lemur, and piping hornbill. Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998, Sarawak natives are given permissions to hunt for a restricted range of wild animals in the jungles but should not possess more than 5 kg (11 lb) of meat.[175] The Sarawak Forest Department was established in 1919 to conserve forest resources in the state.[176] Following international criticism of the logging industry in Sarawak, the state government decided to downsize the Sarawak Forest Department and created the Sarawak Forestry Corporation in 1995.[177][178] The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre was set up in 1997 for the conservation, protection, and sustainable development of biodiversity in the state.[179]
Conservation issues
Sarawak's rain forests are primarily threatened by the logging industry and palm oil plantations.
Sources vary as to Sarawak's remaining forest cover: former chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud declared that it fell from 70% to 48% between 2011 and 2012, the Sarawak Forest Department and the Ministry of Resource Planning and Environment both held that it remained at 80% in 2012,[192][193] and Wetlands International reported that it fell by 10% between 2005 and 2010, 3.5 times faster than the rest of Asia combined.[194]
Economy
Historically, Sarawak's economy was stagnant during the rule of previous three white Rajahs. After the formation of Malaysia, Sarawak GDP growth rate has risen due to increase in petroleum output and the rise in global petroleum prices. However, the state economy is less diversified and still heavily dependent upon the export of primary commodities when compared to Malaysia overall. The per capita GDP in Sarawak was lower than the national average from 1970 to 1990.[196] As of 2021, GDP per capita for Sarawak stands at RM 65,971 (US$ 15,173),[9] which is the third highest in Malaysia. However, the urban-rural income gap remained a major problem in Sarawak.[197]
Sarawak is abundant in natural resources, and primary industries such as mining, agriculture, and forestry accounted for 32.8% of its economy in 2013.[198] It also specialises in the manufacture of food and beverages, wood-based and rattan products, basic metal products, and petrochemicals,[126] as well as cargo and air services and tourism.[198] The state's gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 40.5% per year on average from 2010 to 2021,[199] but became very more volatile later on, ranging from −3.0% in 2009 to 35.0% in 2021. Sarawak contributed 9.5% of Malaysia's GDP in the nine years leading up to 2020, making it the third largest contributor after Selangor and Kuala Lumpur.[198] From 2015 to 2021, the oil and gas industry accounted for 55.2% of the Sarawak government's revenue. It attracted RM 80 billion (US$ 17.85 billion) in foreign investments, with 95% going to the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE), the second largest economic corridor in Malaysia.[198]
As of 2021, Sarawak is producing 2,800,000 barrel of oil equivalent every day in 150 oil and gas producing fields.[200][failed verification] However, the export-oriented economy is dominated by liquefied natural gas (LNG), which accounts for more than half of total exports. Crude petroleum accounts for 45.1%, while palm oil, sawlogs, and sawn timber account for 12.0% collectively.[198] The state receives a 5% royalty from Petronas over oil explorations in its territorial waters.[201] Most of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri at Balingian basin, Baram basin, and around Luconia Shoals.[202]
Sarawak is one of the world's largest exporters of tropical hardwood timber, constituting 65% of the total Malaysian log exports in 2000. The last United Nations statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak's sawlog exports at an average of 14,109,000 m3 (498,300,000 cu ft) per year between 1996 and 2000.[203]
In 1955,
Energy
Electricity in Sarawak, supplied by the state-owned Sarawak Energy Berhad (SEB),[206] is primarily sourced from traditional coal fired power plants and thermal power stations using LNG,[206][207] but diesel based sources and hydroelectricity are also utilised. There are 3 hydroelectric dams as of 2015[update] at Batang Ai,[208] Bakun,[209] and Murum,[210] with several others under construction.[208] In early 2016, SEB signed Malaysia's first energy export deal to supply electricity to neighbouring West Kalimantan in Indonesia.[211]
In 2008, SCORE was established as a framework to develop the energy sector in the state, specifically the Murum, Baram, and Baleh Dams as well as potential coal-based power plants,[212] and 10 high priority industries out to 2030.[213][214] The Regional Corridor Development Authority is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE.[215] The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE, including areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah.[216] Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park,[217] with Tanjung Manis as a halal food hub,[218] and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.[219]
Tourism
Tourism plays a major role in the economy of Sarawak and contributed 7.9% of the state's GDP in 2016.[220] Foreign visitors to Sarawak are predominantly from Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Germany, Australia, Belgium, South Korea, and United Kingdom.[221] A number of different organisations, both state and private, are involved in the promotion of tourism in Sarawak: the Sarawak Tourism Board is the state body responsible for tourism promotion in the state, various private tourism groups are united under the Sarawak Tourism Federation, and the Sarawak Convention Bureau is responsible for attracting conventions, conferences, and corporate events which are held in the Borneo Convention Centre in Kuching.[222] The public and private bodies in Sarawak hold a biannual event to award the Sarawak Hornbill Tourism Award, an award for achievements within various categories, to recognise businesses and individuals for their efforts in the development of tourism within the state.[223]
The Rainforest World Music Festival is the region's primary musical event, attracting more than 50,000 people annually.[224] Other events that are held regularly in Sarawak are the Anugerah Seri Angkasa (ASA), ASEAN International Film Festival, Borneo Music Festival Live, Borneo Jazz Festival, Borneo Cultural Festival, and Borneo International Kite Festival.[222] Major shopping complexes in Sarawak include The Spring, Boulevard, VivaCity, Plaza Merdeka, City One, and AEON shopping malls in Kuching,[225] Bintang Megamall, Boulevard, Imperial Mall, and Miri Plaza shopping malls in Miri[226] and NAIM Bintulu Paragon Street Mall, The Spring, Boulevard Shopping Mall, Crown Pacific Mall, Commerce Square Mall, Times Square Megamall, and Parkcity Mall in Bintulu.
Key tourism indicators | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Foreign arrivals (millions) | 1.897 | 2.343 | 2.635 | 2.665 | 2.996 | 2.497 | 2.258 | 2.639 | 2.113 | 2.082 |
Domestic arrivals (West Malaysia and Sabah) (millions) | 1.373 | 1.452 | 1.434 | 1.707 | 1.862 | 2.020 | 2.402 | 2.217 | 2.318 | 2.560 |
Total arrivals (millions) | 3.271 | 3.795 | 4.069 | 4.372 | 4.858 | 4.517 | 4.661 | 4.856 | 4.431 | 4.662 |
Total tourism receipts, billions (RM) | 6.618 | 7.914 | 8.573 | 9.588 | 10.686 | 9.870 | 8.370 | 8.590 | 7.960 | N/A |
Total tourism receipts, billions (equivalent USD) | 1.489 | 2.374 | 2.786 | 2.876 | 3.206 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Infrastructure
Infrastructure development in Sarawak is overseen by the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Transportation, successor to the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Communications (MIDCom) after it was renamed in 2016.[231] Despite this ministerial oversight, infrastructure in Sarawak remains relatively underdeveloped compared to Peninsular Malaysia.[232]
In 2009, 94% of urban Sarawak was supplied with electricity, but only 67% of rural areas had electricity.[233] However, this had increased to 91% by 2014.[234] According to a 2015 article, household internet penetration in Sarawak was lower than Malaysian national average, 41.2% versus 58.6%, with 58.5% of internet use being in urban areas and 29.9% in rural areas. In comparison, mobile telecommunication uptake in Sarawak was comparable to the national average, 93.3% against a national average of 94.2%, and on par with neighbouring Sabah.[235] Mobile telecommunication infrastructure, specifically broadcast towers, are built and managed by Sacofa Sdn Bhd (Sacofa Private Limited), which enjoys a monopoly in Sarawak after the company was granted a 20-year exclusivity deal on the provision, maintenance and leasing of towers in the state.[236]
A number of different bodies manage the supply of water depending on their region of responsibility, including the Kuching Water Board (KWB), Sibu Water Board (SWB), and LAKU Management Sdn Bhd, which handle water supply in Miri, Bintulu, and Limbang respectively,[237] and the Rural Water Supply Department managing the water supply for the remaining areas.[238] As of 2014[update], 82% of the rural areas have a fresh water supply.[234]
Broadcasting
Sarawak launched its radio service on 7 June 1954, which became a part of Radio Malaysia when it joined Malaysia in 1963 and later part of the bigger
Transportation
Much like many former British territories, Sarawak uses a
A
Sarawak is served by a number of airports with
Sarawak has four primary ports located at Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu, and Miri.[237] The busiest seaport at Bintulu is under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian federal government and mainly handles LNG products and regular cargo. The remaining ports are under the respective state port authorities. The combined throughput of the four primary ports was 61.04 million freight weight tonnes (FWT) in 2013.[242] Sarawak has 55 navigable river networks with a combined length of 3,300 km (2,100 mi). For centuries, the rivers of Sarawak have been a primary means of transport as well as a route for timber and other agricultural goods moving downriver for export at the country's major ports. Sibu port, located 113 km (70 mi) from the river's mouth, is the main hub along the Rajang River mainly handling timber products. However, the throughput of Sibu port has declined over the years after Tanjung Manis Industrial Port (TIMP) began operating further downriver.[242]
Healthcare
Health care in provided by three major government hospitals, Sarawak General Hospital, Sibu Hospital, and Miri Hospital,[250] as well as numerous district hospitals,[251] public health clinics, 1Malaysia clinics, and rural clinics.[252] Sarawak Heart Centre was set up in 2011 in Kota Samarahan to provide cardiology services to patients.[253] Besides government-owned hospitals and clinics, there are several private hospitals in Sarawak[254] such as the Normah Medical Specialists Centre, Timberland Medical Specialists Centre,[255] and Sibu Specialist Medical Centre. Hospitals in Sarawak typically provide the full gamut of health care options, from triage to palliative care for the terminally ill. In 1994, Sarawak General Hospital Department of Radiotherapy, Oncology & Palliative Care instituted an at-home care, or hospice care, program for cancer patients. The non profit Sarawak Hospice Society was established in 1998 to promote this program.[256] In comparison to the number of other medical facilities, mental health is only serviced by a single facility, Hospital Sentosa.[257] This abundance of medical services has made Sarawak a medical tourism destination for visitors from neighbouring Brunei and Indonesia.[258]
In comparison to the prevalence of health services in urban regions, much of rural Sarawak is only accessible by river transport, which limits access.[259] Remote rural areas that are beyond the operating areas of health clinics, about 12 km (7.5 mi),[260] and inaccessible by land or river are serviced by a monthly flying doctor service, which was established in 1973.[261] A village health promoter program, where volunteers are provided with basic medical training, was established in 1981 but difficulty in providing medical supplies to remote villages, as well as a lack of incentive, resulted in a decline of the program.[262] A variety of traditional medicine practices are still being used by the various communities in Sarawak to supplement modern medical practices but this practice is also declining.[263] However, since 2004, there has been a resurgence in traditional medicine in Malaysia resulting in the establishment of a traditional medicine division within the Ministry of Health. A 2006 government program to have integrated hospitals led to numerous universities starting programs to teach traditional medicine and major hospitals, including Sarawak General Hospital, providing traditional therapies.[264]
Education
Education in Malaysia falls under the remit of two federal ministries; the Malaysian Ministry of Education is responsible for primary and secondary education,[265] while the Ministry of Higher Education has oversight over public universities, polytechnic and community colleges.[266] Early childhood education is not directly controlled by the Ministry of Education as it does with primary and secondary education. However, the ministry does oversee the licensing of private kindergartens, the main form of early childhood education, in accordance with the National Pre-School Quality Standard, which was launched in 2013.[267]
Around the time of Federation, overall literacy in Sarawak was quite low. In 1960, the overall literacy rate was 25%, with a heavy slant in the literacy rate towards the Chinese population, 53%, compared with that of indigenous peoples which was substantially lower, only 17%.[268] By 2007, overall literacy in adults aged 15 and over had significantly increased to 92.3% and in 2012, this had climbed to 96%.[269]
There were 1480 schools in Sarawak in 2014, of which 1271 were primary, 202 were secondary and 7 were vocational/technical secondary schools.
Sarawak is home to three public universities –
With the establishment of SCORE and the associated potential of 1.6 million more jobs by 2030,[272] the state government allocated RM1 billion from 2016 to 2020 to a Skills Development Fund for vocational education.[277] In 2015, Petronas provided vocational scholarships to 150 underprivileged Sarawak students as part of its Vocational Institution Sponsorship and Training Assistance program,[278] although it had been criticised for under-representing local students in its previous allocations;[279] the company also provided support to other Sarawak vocational education centres.[280]
Demographics
The 2020 census of Malaysia reported a population of 2,453,677 in Sarawak,[8] making it the fifth most populous state.[281] However, this population is distributed over a large area resulting in Sarawak having the lowest population density in the country with only 20 people per km2. The average population growth rate of 1.8%, from 2000 to 2010, is very close to the national average of 2.0%.[126] In 2014, 58% of the population resided in urban areas with the remainder in rural areas, but over the next 10 years it is predicted that the urban population would rise to 65%.[282] As of 2011[update], the crude birth rate in Sarawak was 16.3 per 1000 individuals, the crude death rate was 4.3 per 1000 population, and the infant mortality rate was 6.5 per 1000 live births.[283]
Urban populations consist predominantly of
The registration for, and issuing of, national identity cards, a legally required document for accessing various services, to these remote tribes has been problematic for many years,[287] and in the past had even resulted in a large number of people from the Penan ethnic group being rendered effectively stateless.[288] In recent years, this issue has seen progressive improvement with the implementation of systems such as mobile registration units.[289]
Sarawak has a large immigrant work force with as many as 150,000 registered foreign migrant workers working as domestic workers or in plantation, manufacturing, construction, services and agriculture.[290] However, this population of legally registered workers is overshadowed by a large population of between 320,000 and 350,000 illegal workers.[291]
Ethnic groups
an Iban warrior in his traditional dress | Melanau girls with the traditional Baju Kurung |
a Bidayuh girl | Sarawakian Chinese woman in her traditional dress of Cheongsam |
Sarawak has six major ethnic groups,
The population of 1,389,926 of the
Although the presence of Chinese in Sarawak dates back to the 6th century AD when traders first came to the state, the Chinese population today largely consists of communities originating from immigrants during the Brooke era.[140] This migration was driven by the employment opportunities at gold mines in Bau.
Sarawak Chinese are primarily Buddhist and Christian,
During the Brooke era, Sarawak Malays were predominantly fishermen,[298] leading to their villages being concentrated along river banks. However, with the advent of urban development, many Malays have migrated to seek employment in public and private sectors. Traditionally, they are known for their silver and brass crafts, wood carvings, and textiles.[140][301]
The
The Bidayuh are a southern Sarawak people,[303] that were referred to by early European settlers as Land Dayaks because they traditionally live on steep limestone mountains. They account for 7.3 per cent of the population of Sarawak and are the second most numerous of the indigenous Dayak people, after the Iban. The Bidayuh are indigenous to the areas that comprise the modern day divisions of Kuching and Serian. Although considered one people, their language is regionally distinct resulting in dialects that are unintelligible to Bidayuh from outside the immediate locale,[304][failed verification] resulting in English and Malay being the lingua franca. Like many other indigenous peoples, the majority of the Bidayuh have been converted to Christianity,[140] but still live in villages consisting of longhouses, with the addition of the distinctive round baruk where communal gatherings were held.[140]
The numerous tribes who reside in Sarawak's interior such as the Kenyah, Kayan, Lun Bawang, Kelabit, Penan, Bisaya, and Berawan are collectively referred to as Orang Ulu. In the Iban language, this name means "Upriver People," reflecting the location these tribes settled in;[140] most of them reside near the drainage basin of the Baram River.[305] Both woodworking and artistry are highly visible aspects of Orang Ulu culture exemplified by mural covered longhouses, carved wooden boats, and tattooing.[140] Well-known musical instruments from the Orang Ulu are the Kayans' sapeh and Kenyah's sampe' and Lun Bawang's bamboo band.[305] The Kelabit and Lun Bawang people are known for their production of fragrant rice.[306][305] As with the many other indigenous peoples of Sarawak, the majority of Orang Ulu are Christians.[140]
The Indians, predominantly the
Languages
English was the official language of Sarawak from 1963 to 1974 due to opposition from First Chief Minister of Sarawak Stephen Kalong Ningkan to the use of the
Although the official form of Malay,
Religion
Although Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, Sarawak has no official state religion.[325] However, during the chieftainship of Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, the Constitution of Sarawak was amended to make the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the head of Islam in Sarawak and empower the state assembly to pass laws regarding Islamic affairs. With such provisions, Islamic policies can be formulated in Sarawak and the establishment of Islamic state agencies is possible. The 1978 Majlis Islam Bill enabled the setting up of Syariah Courts in Sarawak with jurisdictions over matrimonial, child custody, betrothal, inheritance, and criminal cases in the state. An appeals court and Courts of Kadi were also formed.[105][note 10]
-
St. Joseph Cathedral
-
Old Sarawak State Mosque
-
Hong San Si Temple
Culture
The location and history of Sarawak has resulted in a broad diversity of ethnicity, culture and languages. Among the indigenous peoples of Sarawak, outside influences have led to many changes over time. The Iban tribal culture in Sarawak centred on the concept of the warrior and the ability to take heads from other tribes in battle. This practice, central as it was to the Iban people, was made illegal under James Brooke's rule and ultimately faded away although reminders of the practice are still seen in some long houses.[326] Two other tribal peoples of the Sarawak Highlands, the Kelabit and Lun Bawang, have seen fundamental changes to their ethnic identities as a direct result of their conversion to Christianity. One major change was the shift in the focal point of their social interactions from the traditional long house to the local church. Their religious devotion has also helped shape their worldview outside of their village, particularly in response to change.[327] For the Penan people, one of the last tribes to still be practising a nomadic lifestyle within the jungle, outside influence, particularly education, has resulted in a significant decline in the population that practice the nomadic lifestyle.[328] Others settle down after intermixing with members of different tribes, such as the Orang Ulu.[329] One direct result of this diversity in cultures, engendered by a policy of tolerance to all races, is the increasing numbers of tribal peoples marrying not only other Sarawakian tribes, but also to Chinese, Malays as well as citizens of European or American descent.[330]
The indigenous tribes of Sarawak traditionally used oratory to pass on their culture from one generation to the next;[331][note 11] examples of these traditional practices include the Iban's Ngajat dances,[332] Renong (Iban vocal repertory),[333] Ensera (Iban oral narratives),[307][note 12] and epic storytelling by the Kayan and Kenyah.[334][335]
In the years before federation, the colonial government recognised that British education and indigenous culture was influencing a new generation of Iban teachers. Thus, on 15 September 1958, the Borneo Literature Bureau was inaugurated with a charter to nurture and encourage local literature while also supporting the government in its release of documentation, particularly in technical and instructional manuscripts that were to be distributed to the indigenous peoples of Sarawak and Sabah. As well as indigenous languages, documents would also be published in English, Chinese and Malay. In 1977, the bureau came under the authority of the federal government language planning and development agency, the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP), which advocated publication only in Malay ultimately causing the demise of fledgling indigenous literature.[307][note 13]
It was a number of decades before print media began to appear in Sarawak. The Sarawak Gazette, published by the Brooke government, recorded a variety of news relating to economics, agriculture, anthropology, archaeology, began circulation in 1870 and continues in modern times.[336] However, in the decades following federation, restrictive laws and connections to businesses have meant that the media is a largely state-owned enterprise.[307][note 14] One of the earliest known text publications in Borneo, Hikayat Panglima Nikosa (Story of Nikosa the Warrior), was first printed in Kuching, 1876.[337]
There are a number of museums in Sarawak that preserve and maintain artefacts of Sarawak's culture. At the foot of Mount Santubong, Kuching, is Sarawak Cultural Village, a "living museum" that showcases the various ethnic groups carrying out traditional activities in their respective traditional houses.[338][339] The Sarawak State Museum houses a collection of artefacts such as pottery, textiles, and woodcarving tools from various ethnic tribes in Sarawak, as well as ethnographic materials of local cultures.[340] Orang Ulu's Sapeh (a dug-out guitar) is the best known traditional musical instrument in Sarawak and was played for Queen Elizabeth II during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972.[341]
Cuisine
Sarawak being home to diverse communities, has a variety of ethnically influenced cuisines and cooking styles rarely found elsewhere in Malaysia. Notable dishes in the state include Sarawak
Portrayal in media
A number of international films, documentaries, television series had made Sarawak as a principal photography location, with Farewell to the King (1989), The Sleeping Dictionary (2003), and Edge of the World (2021) being most notable.[347][348] Amongst the first locally produced movies were the Iban language film named "Bejalai" that was featured in the Berlin Film Festival in 1989 and the horror film named "Possessed" screened in 2006.[347]
Holidays and festivals
Sarawakians observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year.
Sports
Sarawak sent its own teams to participate in the
International relations
Sarawak is a sister state/province to Fujian Province in China.[363]
See also
Notes
- ^ Ooi, 2013. Rajah aborgated his absolute powers...(page 103)
- ^ Ooi, 2013. This denial of entry to Anthony ... (page 93) ... The anti-cession movement was by the early 1950s effectively "strangled" a dead letter.(page 98)
- ^ Ishikawa, 2010 (page 87)
- ^ The first Communist group to be formed in Sarawak ... (page 95)
- ^ Alastair, 1993. The first political party, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP) ... (page 118) ... By 1962, there were six parties ... (page 119)
- ^ Faisal, 2012. ...dispensed state funds for development projects in order to buy votes... (page 14)
- ^ Ishikawa, 2010 (page 169)
- ^ Faisal, 2012 ... to make Bahasa Malaysia and English as negeri's official languages. (page 84)
- ^ Postill, 2006 ... Malay was accepted as the official language of Sarawak alongside English until 1985, when English was finally dropped. (page 64)
- ^ Faisal, 2012. Negri is empowered to make provisions for regulating Islamic affairs... (page 86)
- ^ Pandian, 2014. it became the primary means of passing culture, history, and valued traditions. ... in the fact that oral literature is actualised only in performances; (page 95)
- ^ Postill, 2006. ... four were oral narratives ... (page 51)
- ^ Postill, 2006. ;... to encourage local authorship and meet local needs ... (page 51) ... The Bureau ceased to exist in 1977 when it was taken over by the federal body Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.(page 55) ... He concludes that DBP cannot publish books in regional languages (pages 59 and 60)
- ^ Postill, 2006. ... the government controls virtually all newspapers in Sarawak (page 76)
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Aside from that, the late Tusau Padan performed for Queen Elizabeth during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972, ...
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External links
- Official website
- Sarawak at Sarawak Tourism Board
- Laws of Sarawak
- Sarawak at Lonely Planet