Sardis

Sardis (

Sardis was occupied for at least 3500 years. In that time, it fluctuated between a wealthy city of international importance and a collection of modest hamlets.[1]^{(pp1114–1115)}

Early settlement

Sardis was settled before 1500 BC. However, the size and nature of early settlement is not known since only small extramural portions of these layers have been excavated. Evidence of occupation consists largely of

The site may have been occupied as early as the Neolithic, as evidenced by scattered finds of early ceramic fragments. However these were found out of context so no clear conclusions can be drawn. Early Bronze Age cemeteries were found 7 miles away along Lake Marmara, near elite graves of the later Lydian and Persian periods.^{[1](p1116)[2]}

In the Late Bronze Age, the site would have been in the territory of the

In the seventh century BC, Sardis became the capital city of

The city's layout and organization is only partly known at present. To the north/northwest, the city had a large extramural zone with residential, commercial, and industrial areas. Settlement extended to the Pactolus Stream, near which archaeologists have found the remains of work installations where alluvial metals were processed.[1]^(p1117)

Multiroom houses around the site match Herodotus's description of fieldstone and mudbrick construction. Most houses had roofs of clay and straw while wealthy residents had roof tiles, similar to public buildings. Houses often have identifiable courtyards and food preparation areas but no complete house has been excavated so few generalizations can be drawn about Sardian houses' internal layout.^{[1](pp-1118-1120)}

Religious remains include a modest altar which may have been dedicated to Cybele, given a pottery fragment found there with her name on it.^[1](p1118) A possible sanctuary to Artemis was found elsewhere in the site, whose remains include marble statues of lions. ^[1](p1117) Vernacular worship is evidence in extramural areas by dinner servies buried as offerings.^[1](p1117)

Textual evidence regarding Lydian-era Sardis include Pliny's account of a mudbrick building that had allegedly been the palace of Croesus and was still there in his own time.^[1](p1117)

The material culture of Sardis is largely a distinctive twist on Anatolian and Aegean styles. The city's artisans seemed to specialize in

Sardis was conquered by Cyrus the Great around 547 BC. Having defeated the Lydian king Croesus at the Battle of Pteria and Battle of Thymbra, the Persians followed the retreating army back to Sardis and sacked it after a brief siege.^{[3] [4][1](pp1115, 1120)} Details of this event are largely known from Herodotus's semi-mythicized account, but the destruction is highly visible in the archaeological record. In the words of excavator Nicholas Cahill:

It is rare that an important and well-known historical event is so vividly preserved in the archaeological record, but the destruction of Cyrus left clear and dramatic remains throughout the city.^[4]

The city's fortifications burned in a massive fire that spread to parts of the adjoining residential areas. Wooden structures and objects inside buildings were reduced to charcoal. Mudbrick from the fortifications were toppled over on adjacent structures, preventing looting and salvage and thus preserving their remains.^[4]

Skeletons were found buried haphazardly among the debris, including those of Lydian soldiers who died violently. One soldier's forearm bones had been snapped, likely a parry fracture indicating a failed attempt to counter the head injuries that killed him. A partly healed rib fracture suggests he was still recovering from an earlier injury during the battle. In a destroyed house, archaeologists found the partial skeleton of an arthritic man in his forties. The skeleton was so badly burned that archaeologists cannot determine whether it was deliberately mutilated or if the missing bones were carried away by animals.^[4]

Arrowheads and other weaponry turn up in debris all around the city, suggesting a major battle in the streets. The varying styles suggest the mixed background of both armies involved. Household implements such as iron spits and small sickles were found mixed in with ordinary weapons of war, suggesting that civilians attempted to defend themselves during the sack.^[4]

Persian Period

After the destruction, Sardis was rebuilt and continued to be an important and prosperous city. Though it was never again the capital of an independent state, it did serve as the capital for the

Relatively little of Persian Sardis is visible in the archaeological record. The city may even have been rebuilt outside the limits of the Lydian-era walls, as evidenced by authors such as Herodotus who place the Persian era central district along the Pactolus stream.[6] The material culture of the city was largely continuous with the Lydian era, to the point that it can be hard to precisely date artifacts based on style.^{[1](pp1120–1122)}

Notable developments of this period include adoption of the

Buildings from this era include a possible predecessor of the later temple to Artemis as well as a possible sanctuary of Zeus. Textual evidence suggests that the city was known for its paradisoi as well as orchards and hunting parks built by Tissaphernes and Cyrus the Younger^[1](p1122) Burials of this period include enormous tumuli with extensive grave goods.^[6]

In 499 BC, Sardis was attacked and burned by the Ionians as part of the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule. The subsequent destruction of mainland Greek cities was said to be retribution for this attack. When Themistocles later visited Sardis, he came across a votive statue he had personally dedicated at Athens, and requested its return.^[6]

Hellenistic and Byzantine Sardis

In 334 BC, Sardis was conquered by

Later, trade and the organization of commerce continued to be sources of great wealth. After Constantinople became the capital of the East, a new road system grew up connecting the provinces with the capital. Sardis then lay rather apart from the great lines of communication and lost some of its importance.^{[citation needed]}

During the cataclysmic 7th Century Byzantine–Sasanian War, Sardis was in 615 one of the cities sacked in the invasion of Asia Minor by the Persian Shahin. Though the Byzantines eventually won the war, the damage to Sardis was never fully repaired.^{[citation needed]}

Sardis retained its titular supremacy and continued to be the seat of the

By the 1700s, only two small hamlets existed at the site. In the 20th century, a new town was built.^{[1](pp1123–1124)}

Foundation stories

Herodotus recounts a legend that the city was founded by the sons of Heracles, the Heracleidae. According to Herodotus, the Heraclides ruled for five hundred and five years beginning with Agron, 1220 BC, and ending with Candaules, 716 BC. They were followed by the Mermnades, which began with Gyges, 716 BC, and ended with Croesus, 546 BC.^[10]

The name "Sardis" appears first in the work of the Archaic era poet Sappho. Strabo claims that the city's original name was "Hyde".^{[1](pp1115–1116)}

Geography

Sardis was situated in the middle of Hermus River Valley, about 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) south of the river. Its citadel was built on Mount Tmolus, a steep and lofty spur, while a lower town extended to the area of the Pactolus stream.

Today, the site is located by the present day village of Sart, near Salihli in the Manisa province of Turkey, close to the Ankara - İzmir highway (approximately 72 kilometres (45 mi) from İzmir). The site is open to visitors year-round, where notable remains include the bath-gymnasium complex, synagogue and Byzantine shops is open to visitors year-round.

Excavation history

By the 19th century, Sardis was in ruins, with mainly visible remains mostly from the Roman period. Early excavators included the British explorer George Dennis, who uncovered an enormous marble head of Faustina the Elder. Found in the precinct of the Temple of Artemis, it probably formed part of a pair of colossal statues devoted to the Imperial couple. The 1.76 metre high head is now kept at the British Museum.^[11]

The first large-scale archaeological expedition in Sardis was directed by a Princeton University team led by Howard Crosby Butler between years 1910–1914, unearthing a temple to Artemis, and more than a thousand Lydian tombs. The excavation campaign was halted by World War I, followed by the Turkish War of Independence, though it briefly resumed in 1922. Some surviving artifacts from the Butler excavation were added to the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

A new expedition known as the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis was founded in 1958 by

During the 1960s, the acknowledgment of the local significance of the Jewish community in Sardis received notable confirmation through the identification of a substantial assembly hall in the northwestern part of the city, now known as the Sardis Synagogue. This site, adorned with inscriptions, menorahs, and various artifacts, establishes its function as a synagogue from the 4th to the 6th century. Excavations in adjacent residential and commercial areas have also uncovered additional evidence of Jewish life.^[13]

From 1976 until 2007, excavation continued under

Some of the important finds from the site of Sardis are housed in the Archaeological Museum of Manisa, including Late Roman mosaics and sculpture, a helmet from the mid-6th century BC, and pottery from various periods.

See also

• Cities of the ancient Near East
• List of synagogues in Turkey

References

Further reading

• Elderkin, George Wicker (1940). "The Name of Sardis". Classical Philology. 35 (1): 54–56.
  S2CID 162247979
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• JSTOR 24937494
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• Wikidata Q105988871
• JSTOR 41670460
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• JSTOR 3823622
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• ISBN 978-0-674-78925-8
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• JSTOR 24048256
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• JSTOR 20066668
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• Ramage, Andrew (1994). "Early Iron Age Sardis and its neighbours". In Çilingiroğlu, A.; French, D.H. (eds.). Anatolian Iron Ages 3: The Proceedings of the Third Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6-12 August 1990. Vol. 16. British Institute at Ankara. pp. 163–172.
  JSTOR 10.18866/j.ctt1pc5gxc.26
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• Ramage, Nancy H. (1994). "Pactolus Cliff: An Iron Age Site at Sardis and Its Pottery". In Çilingiroğlu, A.; French, D.H. (eds.). Anatolian Iron Ages 3: The Proceedings of the Third Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Held at Van, 6-12 August 1990. Vol. 16. British Institute at Ankara. pp. 173–184.
  JSTOR 10.18866/j.ctt1pc5gxc.27
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• doi:10.3406/palla.1995.1367
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• Gadbery, Laura M. (1996). "Archaeological Exploration of Sardis". Harvard University Art Museums Bulletin. 4 (3): 49–53.
  JSTOR 4301536
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• Mitten, David Gordon (1996). "Lydian Sardis and the Region of Colchis : Three Aspects". Collection de l'Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité. 613 (1): 129–140.
  ProQuest 305180080
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• Greenewalt, Crawford H.; Rautman, Marcus L. (1998). "The Sardis Campaigns of 1994 and 1995". American Journal of Archaeology. 102 (3): 469–505.
  S2CID 191368428
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• Cahill, Nicholas; Ramage, Andrew, eds. (2008). Love for Lydia: A Sardis Anniversary Volume Presented to Crawford H. Greenewalt, Jr. Harvard University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-674-03195-1
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• Payne, Annick; Wintjes, Jorit (2016). "Sardis and the Archaeology of Lydia". Lords of Asia Minor: An Introduction to the Lydians. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 47–62.
  JSTOR j.ctvc5pfx2.7
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• S2CID 241097314
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sardis.

• The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis
• The Search for Sardis, history of the archaeological excavations in Sardis, in the Harvard Magazine
• Sardis, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
• Sardis Turkey, a comprehensive photographic tour of the site
• The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites - Sardis
• Livius.org: Sardes - pictures