Satan
Satan,[a] also known as the Devil,[b] and sometimes also called Lucifer in Christianity, is an entity in Abrahamic religions that seduces humans into sin or falsehood. In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the yetzer hara, or "evil inclination". In Christianity and Islam, he is usually seen as a fallen angel or jinn who has rebelled against God, who nevertheless allows him temporary power over the fallen world and a host of demons. In the Quran, Shaitan, also known as Iblis, is an entity made of fire who was cast out of Heaven because he refused to bow before the newly created Adam and incites humans to sin by infecting their minds with waswās ("evil suggestions").
A figure known as ha-satan ("the satan") first appears in the Hebrew Bible as a heavenly prosecutor, subordinate to Yahweh (God), who prosecutes the nation of Judah in the heavenly court and tests the loyalty of Yahweh's followers. During the intertestamental period, possibly due to influence from the Zoroastrian figure of Angra Mainyu, the satan developed into a malevolent entity with abhorrent qualities in dualistic opposition to God. In the apocryphal Book of Jubilees, Yahweh grants the satan (referred to as Mastema) authority over a group of fallen angels, or their offspring, to tempt humans to sin and punish them.
Although the Book of Genesis does not mention him, Christians often identify the serpent in the Garden of Eden as Satan. In the Synoptic Gospels, Satan tempts Jesus in the desert and is identified as the cause of illness and temptation. In the Book of Revelation, Satan appears as a Great Red Dragon, who is defeated by Michael the Archangel and cast down from Heaven. He is later bound for one thousand years, but is briefly set free before being ultimately defeated and cast into the Lake of Fire.
In the
Although Satan is generally viewed as evil, some groups have very different beliefs. In theistic Satanism, Satan is considered a deity who is either worshipped or revered. In LaVeyan Satanism, Satan is a symbol of virtuous characteristics and liberty. Satan's appearance is never described in the Bible, but, since the ninth century, he has often been shown in Christian art with horns, cloven hooves, unusually hairy legs, and a tail, often naked and holding a pitchfork. These are an amalgam of traits derived from various pagan deities, including Pan, Poseidon, and Bes. Satan appears frequently in Christian literature, most notably in Dante Alighieri's Inferno, all variants of the classic Faust story, John Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, and the poems of William Blake. He continues to appear in film, television, and music.
Historical development
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew term śāṭān (Hebrew: שָׂטָן) is a generic noun meaning "accuser" or "adversary",[7][8] and is derived from a verb meaning primarily "to obstruct, oppose".[9] In the earlier biblical books, e.g. 1 Samuel 29:4, it refers to human adversaries, but in the later books, especially Job 1–2 and Zechariah 3, to a supernatural entity.[8] When used without the definite article (simply satan), it can refer to any accuser,[10] but when it is used with the definite article (ha-satan), it usually refers specifically to the heavenly accuser, literally, the satan.[10]
The word with the
The word without the definite article is used in ten instances,[citation needed] of which two are translated diabolos in the Septuagint. It is generally translated in English Bibles as 'an accuser' (1x) or 'an adversary' (9x as in Book of Numbers, 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 Kings). In some cases, it is translated as 'Satan':
- 1 Chronicles 21:1, "Satan stood up against Israel" (KJV) or "And there standeth up an adversary against Israel" (Young's Literal Translation)[13]
- Psalm 109:6b "and let Satan stand at his right hand" (KJV)[14] or "let an accuser stand at his right hand." (ESV, etc.)
The word does not occur in the Book of Genesis, which mentions only a talking serpent and does not identify the serpent with any supernatural entity.[15] The first occurrence of the word "satan" in the Hebrew Bible in reference to a supernatural figure comes from Numbers 22:22,[16][7] which describes the Angel of Yahweh confronting Balaam on his donkey:[6] "Balaam's departure aroused the wrath of Elohim, and the Angel of Yahweh stood in the road as a satan against him."[7] In 2 Samuel 24,[17] Yahweh sends the "Angel of Yahweh" to inflict a plague against Israel for three days, killing 70,000 people as punishment for David having taken a census without his approval.[18] 1 Chronicles 21:1[19] repeats this story,[18] but replaces the "Angel of Yahweh" with an entity referred to as "a satan".[18]
Some passages clearly refer to the satan, without using the word itself.[20] 1 Samuel 2:12[21] describes the sons of Eli as "sons of Belial";[22] the later usage of this word makes it clearly a synonym for "satan".[22] In 1 Samuel 16:14–2,[23] Yahweh sends a "troubling spirit" to torment King Saul as a mechanism to ingratiate David with the king.[24] In 1 Kings 22:19–25,[25] the prophet Micaiah describes to King Ahab a vision of Yahweh sitting on his throne surrounded by the Host of Heaven.[22] Yahweh asks the Host which of them will lead Ahab astray.[22] A "spirit", whose name is not specified, but who is analogous to the satan, volunteers to be "a Lying Spirit in the mouth of all his Prophets".[22]
Book of Job
The satan appears in the Book of Job, a poetic dialogue set within a prose framework,[26] which may have been written around the time of the Babylonian captivity.[26] In the text, Job is a righteous man favored by Yahweh.[26] Job 1:6–8[27] describes the "sons of God" (bənê hāʼĕlōhîm) presenting themselves before Yahweh.[26] Yahweh asks one of them, "the satan", where he has been, to which he replies that he has been roaming around the earth.[26] Yahweh asks, "Have you considered My servant Job?"[26] The satan replies by urging Yahweh to let him torture Job, promising that Job will abandon his faith at the first tribulation.[28] Yahweh consents: the satan destroys Job's servants and flocks, yet Job refuses to condemn Yahweh.[28] The first scene repeats itself, with the satan presenting himself to Yahweh alongside the other "sons of God".[29] Yahweh points out Job's continued faithfulness, to which the satan insists that more testing is necessary;[29] Yahweh once again gives him permission to test Job.[29] In the end, Job remains faithful and righteous, and it is implied that the satan is shamed in his defeat.[30]
Book of Zechariah
Zechariah 3:1–7[31] contains a description of a vision dated to the middle of February of 519 BC,[32] in which an angel shows Zechariah a scene of Joshua the High Priest dressed in filthy rags, representing the nation of Judah and its sins,[33] on trial with Yahweh as the judge and the satan standing as the prosecutor.[33] Yahweh rebukes the satan[33] and orders for Joshua to be given clean clothes, representing Yahweh's forgiveness of Judah's sins.[33]
Second Temple period
During the
The idea of Satan as an opponent of God and a purely evil figure seems to have taken root in Jewish
The
Judaism
Most Jews do not believe in the existence of a supernatural omnimalevolent figure.
Rabbinical scholarship on the
Each modern sect of Judaism has its own interpretation of Satan's identity.
Christianity
Names
The most common English synonym for "Satan" is "
New Testament
Gospels, Acts, and epistles
The three Synoptic Gospels all describe the temptation of Christ by Satan in the desert (Matthew 4:1–11, Mark 1:12–13, and Luke 4:1–13).[78] Satan first shows Jesus a stone and tells him to turn it into bread.[78] He also takes him to the pinnacle of the Temple in Jerusalem and commands Jesus to throw himself down so that the angels will catch him.[78] Satan takes Jesus to the top of a tall mountain as well; there, he shows him the kingdoms of the earth and promises to give them all to him if he will bow down and worship him.[78] Each time Jesus rebukes Satan[78] and, after the third temptation, he is administered by the angels.[78] Satan's promise in Matthew 4:8–9 and Luke 4:6–7 to give Jesus all the kingdoms of the earth implies that all those kingdoms belong to him.[79] The fact that Jesus does not dispute Satan's promise indicates that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true.[79]
Satan plays a role in some of the
The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and his demons as the causes of illness,
Jude 9 refers to a dispute between Michael the Archangel and the Devil over the body of Moses.[94][95][96] Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described in Zechariah 3:1–2.[95][96] The classical theologian Origen attributes this reference to the non-canonical Assumption of Moses.[97][98] According to James H. Charlesworth, there is no evidence the surviving book of this name ever contained any such content.[99] Others believe it to be in the lost ending of the book.[99][100] The second chapter of the pseudepigraphical Second Epistle of Peter [101] copies much of the content of the Epistle of Jude,[101] but omits the specifics of the example regarding Michael and Satan, with 2 Peter 2:10–11 instead mentioning only an ambiguous dispute between "Angels" and "Glories".[101] Throughout the New Testament, Satan is referred to as a "tempter" (Matthew 4:3),[8] "the ruler of the demons" (Matthew 12:24),[102][8] "the God of this Age" (2 Corinthians 4:4),[103] "the evil one" (1 John 5:18),[8] and "a roaring lion" (1 Peter 5:8).[102]
Book of Revelation
The
Revelation 12:3 describes a vision of a Great Red Dragon with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail,[107] an image which is likely inspired by the vision of the four beasts from the sea in the Book of Daniel[108] and the Leviathan described in various Old Testament passages.[109] The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky[110] and pursues the Woman of the Apocalypse.[110] Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "And war broke out in Heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the Dragon. The Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth, and his angels were thrown down with him."[111] Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor), identifying the Satan of Revelation with the satan of the Old Testament.[112]
In Revelation 20:1–3, Satan is bound with a chain and hurled into the Abyss,[113] where he is imprisoned for one thousand years.[113] In Revelation 20:7–10, he is set free and gathers his armies along with Gog and Magog to wage war against the righteous,[113] but is defeated with fire from Heaven, and cast into the lake of fire.[113] Some Christians associate Satan with the number 666, which Revelation 13:18 describes as the Number of the Beast.[114] However, the beast mentioned in Revelation 13 is not Satan,[115] and the use of 666 in the Book of Revelation has been interpreted as a reference to the Roman Emperor Nero, as 666 is the numeric value of his name in Hebrew.[114]
Patristic era
Christians have traditionally interpreted the unnamed serpent in the
The name Heylel, meaning "morning star" (or, in Latin,
The Church Father Origen of Alexandria (c. 184 – c. 253), who was only aware of the actual text of these passages and not the original myths to which they refer, concluded in his treatise On the First Principles, which is preserved in a Latin translation by Tyrannius Rufinus, that neither of these verses could literally refer to a human being.[126] He concluded that Isaiah 14:12 is an allegory for Satan and that Ezekiel 28:12–15 is an allusion to "a certain Angel who had received the office of governing the nation of the Tyrians", but was hurled down to Earth after he was found to be corrupt.[127][128] In his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum, however, Origen interprets both Isaiah 14:12 and Ezekiel 28:12–15 as referring to Satan.[129] According to Henry Ansgar Kelly, Origen seems to have adopted this new interpretation to refute unnamed persons who, perhaps under the influence of Zoroastrian radical dualism, believed "that Satan's original nature was Darkness."[130] The later Church Father Jerome (c. 347 – 420), translator of the Latin Vulgate, accepted Origen's theory of Satan as a fallen angel[131] and wrote about it in his commentary on the Book of Isaiah.[131] In Christian tradition ever since, both Isaiah 14:12[132][133] and Ezekiel 28:12–15 have been understood as allegorically referring to Satan.[134][135] For most Christians, Satan has been regarded as an angel who rebelled against God.[136][133]
According to the ransom theory of atonement, which was popular among early Christian theologians,[137][138] Satan gained power over humanity through Adam and Eve's sin[137][139] and Christ's death on the cross was a ransom to Satan in exchange for humanity's liberation.[137][140] This theory holds that Satan was tricked by God[137][141] because Christ was not only free of sin, but also the incarnate Deity, whom Satan lacked the ability to enslave.[141] Irenaeus of Lyons described a prototypical form of the ransom theory,[137] but Origen was the first to propose it in its fully developed form.[137] The theory was later expanded by theologians such as Gregory of Nyssa and Rufinus of Aquileia.[137] In the eleventh century, Anselm of Canterbury criticized the ransom theory, along with the associated Christus Victor theory,[137][142] resulting in the theory's decline in western Europe.[137][142] The theory has nonetheless retained some of its popularity in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[137]
Most
Middle Ages
Satan had minimal role in
The Canon Episcopi, written in the eleventh century AD, condemns belief in witchcraft as heretical,[153] but also documents that many people at the time apparently believed in it.[153] Witches were believed to fly through the air on broomsticks,[153] consort with demons,[153] perform in "lurid sexual rituals" in the forests,[153] murder human infants and eat them as part of Satanic rites,[154] and engage in conjugal relations with demons.[155][154] In 1326, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Super illius Specula,[156] which condemned folk divination practices as consultation with Satan.[156] By the 1430s, the Catholic Church began to regard witchcraft as part of a vast conspiracy led by Satan himself.[157]
Early modern period
During the
In the late fifteenth century, a series of witchcraft panics erupted in France and Germany.
The early English settlers of North America, especially the
By the early 1600s, skeptics in Europe, including the English author
Modern era
Mormonism developed its own views on Satan. According to the Book of Moses, the Devil offered to be the redeemer of mankind for the sake of his own glory. Conversely, Jesus offered to be the redeemer of mankind so that his father's will would be done. After his offer was rejected, Satan became rebellious and was subsequently cast out of heaven.[175] In the Book of Moses, Cain is said to have "loved Satan more than God"[176] and conspired with Satan to kill Abel. It was through this pact that Cain became a Master Mahan.[177] The Book of Moses also says that Moses was tempted by Satan before calling upon the name of the "Only Begotten", which caused Satan to depart. Douglas Davies asserts that this text "reflects" the temptation of Jesus in the Bible.[178]
Belief in Satan and demonic possession remains strong among Christians in the United States[179][180][181] and Latin America.[182] According to a 2013 poll conducted by YouGov, fifty-seven percent of people in the United States believe in a literal Devil,[179] compared to eighteen percent of people in Britain.[179] Fifty-one percent of Americans believe that Satan has the power to possess people.[179] W. Scott Poole, author of Satan in America: The Devil We Know, has opined that "In the United States over the last forty to fifty years, a composite image of Satan has emerged that borrows from both popular culture and theological sources" and that most American Christians do not "separate what they know [about Satan] from the movies from what they know from various ecclesiastical and theological traditions".[165] The Catholic Church generally played down Satan and exorcism during late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries,[182] but Pope Francis brought renewed focus on the Devil in the early 2010s, stating, among many other pronouncements, that "The devil is intelligent, he knows more theology than all the theologians together."[182][183] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, liberal Christianity tends to view Satan "as a [figurative] mythological attempt to express the reality and extent of evil in the universe, existing outside and apart from humanity but profoundly influencing the human sphere".[184]
Bernard McGinn describes multiple traditions detailing the relationship between the Antichrist and Satan.[185] In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just as God became incarnate in Jesus.[185] However, in Orthodox Christian thought, this view is problematic because it is too similar to Christ's incarnation.[185] Instead, the "indwelling" view has become more accepted,[185] which stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan,[185] since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's.[185]
Islam
The
Quran
Seven
The primary characteristic of Satan, aside from his
Islamic tradition
Affiliation
In the Quran, Satan is apparently an angel,[186] while, in 18:50, he is described as "from the jinns".[186] This, combined with the fact that he describes himself as having been made from fire, posed a major problem for Muslim exegetes of the Quran,[186] who disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of a group of evil jinn.[196] According to a hadith from Ibn Abbas, Iblis was actually an angel whom God created out of fire. Ibn Abbas asserts that the word jinn could be applied to earthly jinn, but also to "fiery angels" like Satan.[197]
The Muslim historian
Other traditions
During the first two centuries of Islam, Muslims almost unanimously accepted the traditional story known as the Satanic Verses as true.[211] According to this narrative, Muhammad was told by Satan to add words to the Quran which would allow Muslims to pray for the intercession of pagan goddesses.[212] He mistook the words of Satan for divine inspiration.[211] Modern Muslims almost universally reject this story as heretical, as it calls the integrity of the Quran into question.[213]
On the third day of the Hajj, Muslim pilgrims to Mecca throw seven stones at a pillar known as the Jamrah al-’Aqabah, symbolizing the stoning of the Devil.[214] This ritual is based on the Islamic tradition that, when God ordered Abraham to sacrifice his son Ishmael, Satan tempted him three times not to do it, and, each time, Abraham responded by throwing seven stones at him.[214][215]
The hadith teach that newborn babies cry because Satan touches them while they are being born, and that this touch causes people to have an aptitude for sin.[216] This doctrine bears some similarities to the doctrine of original sin.[216] Muslim tradition holds that only Jesus and Mary were not touched by Satan at birth.[216] However, when he was a boy, Muhammad's heart was literally opened by an angel, who removed a black clot that symbolized sin.[216]
Muslim tradition preserves a number of stories involving dialogues between Jesus and Iblis,[209] all of which are intended to demonstrate Jesus's virtue and Satan's depravity.[217] Ahmad ibn Hanbal records an Islamic retelling of Jesus's temptation by Satan in the desert from the Synoptic Gospels.[209] Ahmad quotes Jesus as saying, "The greatest sin is love of the world. Women are the ropes of Satan. Wine is the key to every evil."[217] Abu Uthman al-Jahiz credits Jesus with saying, "The world is Satan's farm, and its people are his plowmen."[209] Al-Ghazali tells an anecdote about how Jesus went out one day and saw Satan carrying ashes and honey;[218] when he asked what they were for, Satan replied, "The honey I put on the lips of backbiters so that they achieve their aim. The ashes I put on the faces of orphans, so that people come to dislike them."[218] The thirteenth-century scholar Sibt ibn al-Jawzi states that, when Jesus asked him what truly broke his back, Satan replied, "The neighing of horses in the cause of Allah."[218]
Muslims believe that Satan is also the cause of deceptions originating from the mind and desires for evil. He is regarded as a cosmic force for separation, despair and spiritual envelopment. Muslims do distinguish between the satanic temptations and the murmurings of the bodily lower self (nafs). The lower self-commands the person to do a specific task or to fulfill a specific desire; whereas the inspirations of Satan tempt the person to do evil in general and, after a person successfully resists his first suggestion, Satan returns with new ones.[219] If a Muslim feels that Satan is inciting him to sin, he is advised to seek refuge with God by reciting: "In the name of Allah, I seek refuge in you, from Satan the outcast." Muslims are also obliged to "seek refuge" before reciting the Quran.[220]
Islamic mysticism
According to some adherents of
However, not all Muslim Sufi mystics are in agreement with a positive depiction of Iblis. Rumi's viewpoint on Iblis is much more in tune with Islamic orthodoxy. Rumi views Iblis as the manifestation of the great sins of haughtiness and envy. He states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam."[226]
Baháʼí Faith
In the
Satanism
Theistic Satanism
Theistic Satanism, commonly referred to as "devil worship",[232] views Satan as a deity, whom individuals may supplicate to.[233][234] It consists of loosely affiliated or independent groups and cabals, which all agree that Satan is a real entity.[235]
Atheistic Satanism
Atheistic Satanism, as practiced by the Satanic Temple and by followers of LaVeyan Satanism, holds that Satan does not exist as a literal anthropomorphic entity, but rather as a symbol of a cosmos which Satanists perceive to be permeated and motivated by a force that has been given many names by humans over the course of time. In this religion, "Satan" is not viewed or depicted as a hubristic, irrational, and fraudulent creature, but rather is revered with Prometheus-like attributes, symbolizing liberty and individual empowerment. To adherents, he also serves as a conceptual framework and an external metaphorical projection of the Satanist's highest personal potential.[236] In his essay "Satanism: The Feared Religion", the current High Priest of the Church of Satan, Peter H. Gilmore, further expounds that "...Satan is a symbol of Man living as his prideful, carnal nature dictates. The reality behind Satan is simply the dark evolutionary force of entropy that permeates all of nature and provides the drive for survival and propagation inherent in all living things. Satan is not a conscious entity to be worshiped, rather a reservoir of power inside each human to be tapped at will".[237]
LaVeyan Satanists embrace the original etymological meaning of the word "Satan" (Hebrew: שָּׂטָן satan, meaning "adversary"). According to Gilmore, "The Church of Satan has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary, opposer, one to accuse or question. We see ourselves as being these Satans; the adversaries, opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being."[238]
Post-LaVeyan Satanists, like the adherents of The Satanic Temple, argue that the human animal has a natural altruistic and communal tendency, and frame Satan as a figure of struggle against injustice and activism. They also believe in bodily autonomy, that personal beliefs should conform to science and inspire nobility, and that people should atone for their mistakes.[239]
Allegations of worship
The main deity in the tentatively
In the
Much modern folklore about Satanism does not originate from the actual beliefs or practices of theistic or atheistic Satanists, but rather from a mixture of medieval Christian folk beliefs, political or sociological conspiracy theories, and contemporary
In culture
In literature
If he was once as handsome as he now is ugly and, despite that, raised his brows against his Maker, one can understand,
how every sorrow has its source in him!
Here we may reign secure, and in my choice
to reign is worth ambition though in Hell:
Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven.— Satan in John Milton's Paradise Lost Book I, lines 261–263
In
Satan appears in several stories from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer,[258] including "The Summoner's Prologue", in which a friar arrives in Hell and sees no other friars,[259] but is told there are millions.[259] Then Satan lifts his tail to reveal that all of the friars live inside his anus.[259] Chaucer's description of Satan's appearance is clearly based on Dante's.[259] The legend of Faust, recorded in the 1589 chapbook The History of the Damnable Life and the Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus,[260] concerns a pact allegedly made by the German scholar Johann Georg Faust with a demon named Mephistopheles agreeing to sell his soul to Satan in exchange for twenty-four years of earthly pleasure.[260] This chapbook became the source for Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus.[261]
John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost features Satan as its main protagonist.[262][263] Milton portrays Satan as a tragic antihero destroyed by his own hubris.[263] The poem, which draws extensive inspiration from Greek tragedy,[264] recreates Satan as a complex literary character,[265] who dares to rebel against the "tyranny" of God,[266][267] in spite of God's own omnipotence.[266][268] The English poet and painter William Blake famously quipped that "The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it."[269] Paradise Regained, the sequel to Paradise Lost, is a retelling of Satan's temptation of Jesus in the desert.[270]
William Blake regarded Satan as a model of rebellion against unjust authority[173] and features him in many of his poems and illustrations,[173] including his 1780 book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell,[173] in which Satan is celebrated as the ultimate rebel, the incarnation of human emotion and the epitome of freedom from all forms of reason and orthodoxy.[173] Based on the Biblical passages portraying Satan as the accuser of sin,[271] Blake interpreted Satan as "a promulgator of moral laws".[271]
In visual art
Satan's appearance does not appear in the Bible or in early Christian writings,[273][274] though Paul the Apostle does write that "Satan disguises himself as an angel of light" (2 Corinthians 11:14).[275] The Devil was never shown in early Christian artwork[273][274] and may have first appeared in the sixth century in one of the mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic "Christ the Good Sheppard" features a blue-violet angel at the left hand side of Christ behind three goats; opposite to a red angel on the right hand side and in front of sheep.[272] Depictions of the devil became more common in the ninth century,[276][277] where he is shown with cloven hooves, hairy legs, the tail of a goat, pointed ears, a beard, a flat nose, and a set of horns.[278][274][148] Satan may have first become associated with goats through the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, recorded in Matthew 25:31–46,[279] in which Jesus separates sheep (representing the saved) from goats (representing the damned); the damned are thrown into an "everlasting fire" along with Satan and his angels.[82]
Medieval Christians were known to adapt previously existing pagan iconography to suit depictions of Christian figures.[278][274] Much of Satan's traditional iconography in Christianity appears to be derived from Pan,[278][274] a rustic, goat-legged fertility god in ancient Greek religion.[278][274] Early Christian writers such as Saint Jerome equated the Greek satyrs and the Roman fauns, whom Pan resembled, with demons.[278][274] The Devil's pitchfork appears to have been adapted from the trident wielded by the Greek god Poseidon[274] and Satan's flame-like hair seems to have originated from the Egyptian god Bes.[274] By the High Middle Ages, Satan and devils appear in all works of Christian art: in paintings, sculptures, and on cathedrals.[280] Satan is usually depicted naked,[274] but his genitals are rarely shown and are often covered by animal furs.[274] The goat-like portrayal of Satan was especially closely associated with him in his role as the object of worship by sorcerers[281] and as the incubus, a demon believed to rape human women in their sleep.[281]
Italian frescoes from the late Middle Ages onward frequently show Satan chained in Hell, feeding on the bodies of the perpetually damned.[282] These frescoes are early enough to have inspired Dante's portrayal in his Inferno.[282] As the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Satan is often shown as a snake with arms and legs as well the head and full-breasted upper torso of a woman.[283] Satan and his demons could take any form in medieval art,[284] but, when appearing in their true form, they were often shown as short, hairy, black-skinned humanoids with clawed and bird feet and extra faces on their chests, bellies, genitals, buttocks, and tails.[284] The modern popular culture image of Satan as a well-dressed gentleman with small horns and a tail originates from portrayals of Mephistopheles in the operas La damnation de Faust (1846) by Hector Berlioz, Mefistofele (1868) by Arrigo Boito, and Faust by Charles Gounod.[281]
Illustrations of Satan/Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban. In one painting, however, Iblis wears a traditional Islamic head covering.[285] The turban probably refers to a narration of Iblis' fall: there he wore a turban, then he was sent down from heaven.[286] Many other pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. Here, he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil.[287] Iblis and his cohorts (div or shayatin) are often portrayed in Turko-Persian art as bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt. Similar to European arts, who took traits of pagan deities to depict devils, they depicted such demons often in a similar fashion to that of Hindu deities.[288]
In film and television
The Devil is depicted as a
The
In music
References to Satan in music can be dated back to the Middle Ages. Giuseppe Tartini was inspired to write his most famous work, the Violin Sonata in G minor, also known as "The Devil's Trill", after dreaming of the Devil playing the violin. Tartini claimed that the sonata was a lesser imitation of what the Devil had played in his dream.[295] Niccolò Paganini was believed to have derived his musical talent from a deal with the Devil.[296] Charles Gounod's Faust features a narrative that involves Satan.[297]
In the early 1900s, jazz and blues became known as the "Devil's Music" as they were considered "dangerous and unholy".[297] According to legend, blues musician Tommy Johnson was a terrible guitarist before exchanging his soul to the Devil for a guitar. Later, Robert Johnson claimed that he had sold his soul in return for becoming a great blues guitarist.[298] Satanic symbolism appears in rock music from the 1960s. Mick Jagger assumes the role of Lucifer in the Rolling Stones' "Sympathy for the Devil" (1968),[297] while Black Sabbath portrayed the Devil in numerous songs, including "War Pigs" (1970) and "N.I.B." (1970).[299]
See also
- Cernunnos
- Hades
- Hel
- Man of sin
- Prince of Darkness (Satan)
- Prince of Darkness (Manichaeism)
- saṭani
- Set (deity)
Notes
- Arabic: الشَّيطان ash-shayṭān, lit. 'astray', 'distant', or sometimes 'devil'
- ^ In many cases, the translators of the Septuagint, the pre-Christian translation of the Hebrew Bible into ancient Greek, chose to render the Hebrew word sâtan as the Greek word διάβολος (diábolos), meaning "opponent" or "accuser".[3][2] This is the root of the modern English word Devil.[2][4] Both the words satanas and diábolos are used interchangeably in the New Testament and in later Christian writings.[2] The Pauline epistles and the Gospel of Mark both use the word satanas more frequently than diábolos,[2][5] but the Gospel of Matthew uses the word diábolos more frequently and so do the Church Fathers Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Origen.[2]
- ^ The Latin Vulgate translation of this passage renders Heylel as "Lucifer"[120] and this name continues to be used by some Christians as an alternative name for Satan.[120]
References
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- ^ a b c d e f Boyd 1975, p. 13.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 28–31.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 2–3, 28–31.
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 114.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 16.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Campo 2009, p. 603.
- ^ ed. Buttrick, George Arthur; The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, An illustrated Encyclopedia
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 1–13, 28–29.
- ^ Stephen M. Hooks – 2007 "As in Zechariah 3:1–2 the term here carries the definite article (has'satan="the satan") and functions not as a...the only place in the Hebrew Bible where the term "Satan" is unquestionably used as a proper name is 1 Chronicles 21:1."
- ^ Coogan, Michael D.; A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context, Oxford University Press, 2009
- ^ Rachel Adelman The Return of the Repressed: Pirqe De-Rabbi Eliezer p65 "However, in the parallel versions of the story in Chronicles, it is Satan (without the definite article)"
- ^ Septuagint 108:6 κατάστησον ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν ἁμαρτωλόν καὶ διάβολος στήτω ἐκ δεξιῶν αὐτοῦ
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 14.
- ^ Numbers 22:22
- ^ 2 Samuel 24
- ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 20.
- ^ 1 Chronicles 21:1
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 18–19.
- ^ 1 Samuel 2:12
- ^ a b c d e Kelly 2006, p. 19.
- ^ 1 Samuel 16:14–23
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 18.
- ^ 1 Kings 22:19–25
- ^ a b c d e f Kelly 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Job 1:6–8
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 22.
- ^ Steinmann, AE. "The structure and message of the Book of Job". Vetus Testamentum.
- ^ Zechariah 3:1–7
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 23.
- ^ a b c d Kelly 2006, p. 24.
- ^ Russell 1977, p. 102.
- ^ Peter Clark, Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith 1998, p. 152 "There are so many features that Zoroastrianism seems to share with the Judeo-Christian tradition that it would be difficult to ... Historically the first point of contact that we can determine is when the Achaemenian Cyrus conquered Babylon ..539 BC"
- ISBN 0-8191-9860-9.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 30.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-973004-9.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 42–43.
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- ^ a b c d Kelly 2006, p. 35.
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- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 37.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 37–40.
- ^ Introduction to the Book of Jubilees, 15. Theology. Some of our Author's Views: Demonology, by R.H. Charles.
- ^ 2 Enoch 18:3. On this tradition, see A. Orlov, "The Watchers of Satanael: The Fallen Angels Traditions in 2 (Slavonic) Enoch", in: A. Orlov, Dark Mirrors: Azazel and Satanael in Early Jewish Demonology (Albany: SUNY, 2011) 85–106.
- 2 Enoch29:4
- 2 Enoch31:4
- ^ See The Book of Wisdom: With Introduction and Notes, p. 27, Object of the book, by A. T. S. Goodrick.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 70–78.
- ^ Kelly 2017, pp. 28–30.
- ISBN 978-9-057-02194-7p. 268
- ^ Glustrom 1989, pp. 22–24.
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- Jewish exegesis of 1 Samuel 29:4 and 1 Kings 5:18 – Oxford dictionary of the Jewish religion, 2011, p. 651
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- ^ "Bava Batra 16a:8".
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- ^ "Kiddushin 81b".
- ^ "Bava Batra 16a".
- ^ Robert Eisen Associate Professor of Religious Studies George Washington University The Book of Job in Medieval Jewish Philosophy 2004 p. 120 "Moreover, Zerahfiiah gives us insight into the parallel between the Garden of Eden story and the Job story alluded to ... both Satan and Job's wife are metaphors for the evil inclination, a motif Zerahfiiah seems to identify with the imagination."
- ISBN 978-1-589-79729-1, p. 356.
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- ^ "What Reform Jews Believe: Central tenets of this faith, based on the questions in the Belief-O-Matic quiz". 2008.
- ^ "American Heritage Dictionary: Devil". Retrieved 2006-05-31.
- ^ a b van der Toorn, Becking & Willem 1999, p. 731.
- ^ Revelation 12:9
- ^ van der Toorn, Becking & Willem 1999, pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b Guiley 2009, p. 1.
- ^ Revelation 9:11
- ^ a b c d e f Kelly 2006, pp. 88–95.
- ^ a b c d Kelly 2006, p. 95.
- ^ Beekmann & Bolt 2012, p. 99–102.
- ^ Beekmann & Bolt 2012, p. 99–100.
- ^ a b Beekmann & Bolt 2012, p. 100–101.
- ^ Peterson 2012, p. 428.
- ^ Beekmann & Bolt 2012, p. 102.
- ^ Bass 2014, p. 113.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 95–96.
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- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 106.
- ^ a b c d Kelly 2006, p. 107.
- ^ Almond 2004, p. 11.
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- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 112.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 128–129.
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- ^ "ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second".[ISBN missing][page needed]
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 129.
- ^ a b James Charlesworth Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, p. 76, Google books link
- ^ The Assumption of Moses: a critical edition with commentary By Johannes Tromp. p. 270
- ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 130.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 271.
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 66.
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 144.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 142.
- ^ a b c d e Kelly 2006, p. 143.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 150.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 150–151.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 151.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 151–152.
- ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 152.
- ^ a b c d Garland 2006.
- ^ a b Schorn, Joel (October 2013). "What is 666 in the Bible?". U.S. Catholic. Retrieved 2018-01-02.
- ABC News and Current Affairs. Retrieved 2018-01-02.
- ^ Poole 2009, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 176.
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 117.
- ^ Origen. Contra Celsum. Book 6. Ch 42.
- ^ a b c Kohler 1923, pp. 4–5.
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- ^ a b c Caird 1980, p. 225.
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- ^ a b Ferguson 2003, p. 237.
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- ^ a b c Ferber 2004, p. 3.
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- ^ a b c d e f Poole 2009, p. 8.
- ^ Russell 1984, p. 225.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 220–229.
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- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 219.
- ^ a b c d e f Thomsett 2011, p. 131.
- ^ a b Thomsett 2011, p. 133.
- ^ a b Poole 2009, pp. 8–9.
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- ^ a b Thomsett 2011, p. 132.
- ^ a b Bainton 1978, p. 377.
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- ^ a b Levack 2015.
- ^ a b Poole 2009, p. 16.
- ^ a b Turner, Matthew Paul (2014-02-16). "Why American Christians Love Satan". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 2018-01-02.
- ^ a b Poole 2009, p. 17.
- ^ Poole 2009, pp. 15–16.
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- ^ a b c d e f g Poole 2009, p. 10.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 264.
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- ^ Moses 5:18
- ^ Moses 5:29–32
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- ^ a b c d Jordan 2013.
- ^ Stoddard 2007.
- ^ Poole 2009, pp. xvii–xix, 3.
- ^ a b c Faiola 2014.
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- ^ "Satan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 22, 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f Cabinet 2001.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Kelly 2006, p. 185.
- ISBN 978-1-405-13351-7page 248
- ^ a b Vicchio 2008, p. 175.
- ^ a b c d Vicchio 2008, p. 181.
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- ^ Annemarie Schimmel Gabriel's Wing: A Study Into the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal Brill Archive 1963 page 212
- ^ Quran 7:20–22
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- ^ a b c d e f Vicchio 2008, p. 178.
- ^ a b c d e Vicchio 2008, p. 179.
- ^ Vicchio 2008, pp. 175–178.
- ^ Tafsir al-Qur'an al-adhim (Interpretation of the Great Qur'an) – Ibn Kathir – commentary of surat al baqarah
- ^ The Beginning and the End – Ibn Kathir – Volume I, also the Koranic commentary of the same author
- ^ a b c d Vicchio 2008, p. 183.
- ^ Mâturîdî, Te’vîlât,t, 1: 116.; Vehbe Zuhayli, Tefsîrü’l-münîr, trc. Ahmet Efe v.dğr. (İstanbul: Risale Yay., 2008), 8: 236–237
- ^ Chodkiewicz, Michel. "Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: Iblis in Sufi Psychology." (1983): 30.
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- ^ a b c d e f Vicchio 2008, p. 184.
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- ^ Satanism and Demonology, by Lionel & Patricia Fanthorpe, Dundurn Press, 2011, p. 74, "If, as theistic Satanists believe, the devil is an intelligent, self-aware entity..." "Theistic Satanism then becomes explicable in terms of Lucifer's ambition to be the supreme god and his rebellion against Yahweh. [...] This simplistic, controntational view is modified by other theistic Satanists who do not regard their hero as evil: far from it. For them he is a freedom fighter..."
- ^ "Interview_MLO". Angelfire.com. Retrieved 2011-11-30.
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- High Priest, Magus Peter H. Gilmore. "What, The Devil?". churchofsatan.com.
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- Contemporary religious Satanism: a critical anthology, p. 45, Jesper Aagaard Petersen, 2009
- ^ High Priest, Magus Peter H. Gilmore. "Satanism: The Feared Religion". churchofsatan.com.
- ^ The Church of Satan [History Channel]. YouTube. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-07-20.
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- ^ a b Drower, E.S. The Peacock Angel. Being Some Account of Votaries of a Secret Cult and Their Sanctuaries. London: John Murray, 1941. [1]
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 186.
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- ]
- ^ a b c d Gallagher & Ashcraft 2006, p. 89.
- ^ Ramirez, Margaret. "'Saint Death' comes to Chicago". Chicago Tribune. Chicago. Retrieved 2009-10-07.
- ^ "BBC News – Vatican declares Mexican Death Saint blasphemous". Bbc.co.uk. 2013-05-09. Retrieved 2013-12-05.
- ^ Gray, Steven (2007-10-16). "Santa Muerte: The New God in Town". Time.com. Chicago: Time. Archived from the original on October 31, 2007. Retrieved 2009-10-07.
- ^ Cadiz Klemack, John (2012-04-24). "Saint or Satan?: "Angel of Death" Worshipped in LA". NBC. Retrieved 2017-12-29.
- ^ Cadiz Klemack, John (2016-06-07). "Mexicans worship cult of 'Saint Death'". Reuters. Retrieved 2017-12-30.
- ^ Cinema of the Occult: New Age, Satanism, Wicca, and Spiritualism in Film, Carrol Lee Fry, Associated University Presse, 2008, pp. 92–98
- ^ a b Encyclopedia of Urban Legends, Updated and Expanded Edition, by Jan Harold Brunvand, ABC-CLIO, 31 Jul 2012 pp. 694–695
- ^ Satanic Ritual Abusepanic in the 1980s, with a distinction made between what modern Satanists believe and what is believed about Satanists.
- ^ a b Poole 2009, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Fowlie 1981, pp. 210–212.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 265–266.
- ^ a b c Fowlie 1981, p. 211.
- ^ a b c Fowlie 1981, p. 212.
- ^ Tambling 2017, pp. 47–50.
- ^ a b c d Tambling 2017, p. 50.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 268.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 268–269.
- ^ Verbart 1995, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b Bryson 2004, pp. 77–79.
- ^ Bryson 2004, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Bryson 2004, pp. 77–78.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 272.
- ^ Bryson 2004, pp. 77–80.
- ^ Bryson 2004, p. 80.
- ^ Bryson 2004, p. 20.
- ^ Kelly 2006, p. 274.
- ^ a b Werner 1986, p. 61.
- ^ a b Russell 1984, p. 129.
- ^ a b Link 1995, p. 44.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Link 2010, p. 264.
- ^ Chambers 2014, p. 89.
- ^ Link 1995, p. 72.
- ^ Russell 1984, p. 130.
- ^ a b c d e f Link 1995, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Pilch 1995, p. 167.
- ^ Link 1995, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 295.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 280.
- ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 281–284.
- ^ a b Kelly 2006, p. 285.
- ASIN B0006F66PC.
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- ^ Prince 2004, p. 1.
- ^ Draven 2010, p. 148.
- ^ a b Ellis 2000, pp. 157–158.
- ^ Ellis 2000, p. 157.
- ^ Ellis 2000, p. 159.
- ^ Blue, Samantha. "The Devil We Used to Know: Portrayals of the Devil in Media". Academia.edu. Retrieved 2017-12-22.
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
- ^ Spignesi 2003, p. 281.
- ^ Crack Magazine. Retrieved 2018-01-01.
- ^ Lewis, John (2011-06-15). "Robert Johnson sells his souls to the devil". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
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- Scott, Miriam Van. The Encyclopedia of Hell (1999) excerpt and text search comparative religions; also popular culture
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- Tomashoff, Craig (13 November 2016), "From 'Touched by an Angel' to 'Lucifer': TV's Heavenly Creatures Are Evolving", The Hollywood Reporter, Hollywood Reporter-Billboard Media Group, retrieved 2017-12-22
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External links
- The Devil, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Martin Palmer, Alison Rowlands and David Wootton (In Our Time, Dec. 11, 2003)