Satavahana dynasty
Satavahana Empire 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sātavāhana | |||||||||||||||||||||
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Late 2nd century BCE–Early 3rd century CE | |||||||||||||||||||||
Classical India | |||||||||||||||||||||
• Established | Late 2nd century BCE | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | Early 3rd century CE | ||||||||||||||||||||
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Today part of | India[5] |
Satavahana kings 100 BCE–2nd c. CE | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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The Satavahanas (Sādavāhana or Sātavāhana,
The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the
The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
Origins
The date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynasty's name, are a matter of debate among historians. Some of these debates have happened in the context of regionalism, with the present-day Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Telangana being variously claimed as the original homeland of the Satavahanas.[9]
Etymology
Śātavāhana, Śālivāhana, Śātakarṇi seem to be Sanskritised versions of the indigenous name Sātakaṇi, which appear as Sālavāhaṇa in Prakrit vernacular.[11]
According to one theory, the word "Satavahana" (Brahmi script: 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sādavāhana or 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦 Sātavāhana,[6] IAST: Sātavāhana) is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana ("driven by seven"; in Hindu mythology, the chariot of the sun god is drawn by seven horses). This would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty, as was common in ancient India.[12] According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the dynasty's name is derived from the words sata ("sharpened", "nimble" or "swift") and vahana ("vehicle"); the expression thus means "one who rides a nimble horse".[13]
Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty. Yet another theory derives their name from the
The Puranas use the name "Andhra" for the Satavahanas. The term "Andhra" may refer to the ethnicity or territory of the dynasty (see Original homeland below). It does not appear in the dynasty's own records.[16]
The
The Kathasaritsagara ascribes a mythical etymology in which a widowed, childless king named Deepakarni was prophesied to find a lion-riding child as his heir. During a jungle hunt, he found such a child riding a yaksha-turned-lion named Sāta. After adoption, the child became the king eventually and came to be known as Sātavāhana or Sāta-supported.[citation needed]
Original homeland
The use of the names "Andhra" and "Andhra-Jatiya" in the Puranas has led some scholars, such as
Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan (present-day
Kanha's Pandavleni mentions the term maha-matra (officer-in-charge), which indicates that the early Satavahanas followed the
Puranas called the Satavahana kings as Andhra, Andhra-bhṛtya, or Andhra-jatiya. Andhra is both a tribal and a territorial name, the latter territorial denotation of present Telugu lands came into usage only well after the Satavahana period had ended, which meant that the term Andhra represented only the Andhra tribe (who had originated in North India along the Yamuna river banks as per Rigveda) and not the present Andhra region or its Telugu people. The term Andhrabhrityas (Andhra servants) may imply two things, one being that the Andhras were originally servants of the Mauryas or the Sungas. The other one, as per some scholars is that the expression is taken to indicate the servants of some other Andhra rulers. These scholars also suggest Kannada origin for the Satavahanas meaning that the dynasty originated in present-day
Varna
The varna of the dynasty is debated by modern scholars, who have variously argued for Shudra, Kshatriya, and Brahmana origins of the dynasty.[47]
The Puranas call the founder of the Satavahana family a vṛṣala (Shudra or low-born).[48]
The Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri describes her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as eka-bamhana (Sanskrit: eka-brahmana). Some scholars, such as V.V. Mirashi, have interpreted the term as "sole Brahmana", and argued that Satavahanas were Brahmanas.[49] Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri interprets the term as "unique Brahmana", and notes that the inscription also describes Gautamiputra as "the destroyer of the pride and conceit of Kshatriyas", which according to him strongly suggests that Gautamiputra claimed to be a Brahmana.[50]
The critics of this theory point out that Gautamiputra's family had matrimonial relations with the non-Brahmana Shakas, and the Satavahanas could not have been Brahmanas because the same inscription also describes Gautamiputra as the one who stopped admixture of varnas (vinivatita chatu vana sankara).[51][52] Historian V. Sundara Rama Sastry argues that the interpretation of the term "eka-bamhana" as "the only Brahmana" does not make sense as the king was obviously not the only member of his varna: instead, he interprets the term as an epithet indicating that the king "excelled even the Brahmans".[49] Historian R. G. Bhandarkar interprets the term "the only protector" of the Brahmanas.[53]
Some Jain works and the Dvātriṃśat-Puttalikā represent Shalivahana (whom some modern scholars identify as a Satavahana king) as of mixed Brahmana and Naga origin. Based on this, some scholars, such as D.C. Sircar, theorize that the Satavahanas were originally non-Brahmanas who started claiming Brahmana status after establishing matrimonial relations with some Brahmana families.[54]
History
Information about the Satavahanas comes from the Puranas, some Buddhist and Jain texts, the dynasty's inscriptions and coins, and foreign (Greek and Roman) accounts that focus on trade.[55] The information provided by these sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the dynasty's history with absolute certainty. As a result, there are multiple theories about the Satavahana chronology.[56]
Foundation
Simuka is mentioned as the first king in a list of royals in a Satavahana inscription at Naneghat. The various Puranas state that the first king of the dynasty ruled for 23 years, and mention his name variously as Sishuka, Sindhuka, Chhismaka, Shipraka, etc. These are believed to be corrupted spellings of Simuka, resulting from copying and re-copying of manuscripts.[58] Simuka cannot be dated with certainty based on available evidence. Based on the following theories, the beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE.[59] According to the Puranas, the first Andhra king overthrew the Kanva rule. He is named as Balipuccha in some texts.[60] D. C. Sircar dated this event to c. 30 BCE, a theory supported by many other scholars.[56]
The Matsya Purana mentions that the Andhra dynasty ruled for around 450 years. As the Satavahana rule ended in the early 3rd century, the beginning of their rule can be dated to the 3rd century BCE. The
Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana ruler began in the first century BCE and lasted until the second century CE. This theory is based on Puranic records as well as archaeological and numismatic evidence. The theory that dates their rule to an earlier period is now largely discredited because the various Puranas contradict each other, and are not fully supported by epigraphic or numismatic evidence.[16]
The oldest Satavahana inscription is the one found on a slab of the upper drum (medhi) of the Kanaganahalli Great Stupa mentioning year 16 of Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana's reign, which can be dated from ca. 110 BCE.[41][42][40]
𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑀲 𑀲𑁄𑀟𑁂 𑀯𑀙𑀭𑁂 𑁛𑁗 𑀫𑀸𑀢𑀺𑀲𑁂𑀓
Rano siri chimu(ka) sātavāhanasa soḍe vachare 10 6 mātiseka
"In the year sixteen 16 of King Siri Chimuka Sātavāhana"
— Kanaganahalli inscription of the 16th year of Simuka.[61]
On another stone slab at Kanaganahalli, the king is possibly shown together with a Nagaraja, and the inscription reads:
𑀭𑀸𑀚𑀸 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀙𑀺𑀫𑀼𑀓𑁄 𑀲𑀸𑀤𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀦𑁄 𑀦𑀸𑀕𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀲𑀔𑀥𑀸𑀪𑁄
Rājā Siri Chimuko Sādavāhano nāgarāya Sakhadhābho
"Lord King Simuka the Satavahana, Nagaraja Sakhadhābho"— Kanaganahalli inscription of Simuka.[62]
Early expansion
Simuka was succeeded by his brother
Satakarni's successor
Art of Sanchi
The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. It was heavily repaired under King Satakarni II. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by the Satavahanas. An inscription on the Southern Gateway records that it was the work of Satakarni II's royal architect Ananda.[74] An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana Emperor Satakarni:
Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni[75]
Sanchi under the Satavahanas 1st century BCE/CE. | ||
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First Western Satraps invasion under Nahapana
Little is known about Apilaka's successors, except cryptic references to one Kuntala Satakarni. The next well-known ruler of the dynasty was Hāla, who composed Gaha Sattasai in Maharashtri Prakrit. Like Hala, his four successors also ruled for very short periods (a total of 12 years), indicating troubled times for the Satavahanas.[14]
Epigraphic and numismatic evidence suggests that the Satavahanas earlier controlled the northern
First revival
The Satavahana power was revived by
During the last years of his reign, his administration was apparently handled by his mother, which could have been a result of an illness or military preoccupation.[14] According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balashri, he was the one ...[84]
… who crushed down the pride and conceit of the
Pandavleni Caves in Nashik.
Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son
Second Western Satraps invasion under Rudradaman I
Pulumavi's successor was his brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni. According to S. N. Sen he ruled during 120–149 CE;[14] according to Charles Higham, his regnal years spanned 138–145 CE.[64] He entered into a marriage alliance with the Western Satraps, marrying the daughter of Rudradaman I.[14]
The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I states that he defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan), twice. It also states that he spared the life of the defeated ruler because of close relations:[64]
"Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him."
— Junagadh rock inscription
According to
As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of
Second revival
Decline
After Yajna Satakarni, the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power.[88] On the other hand, the Western Satraps would continue to prosper for the next two centuries, until their extinction by the Gupta Empire. Yajna Sri was succeeded by Madhariputra Swami Isvarasena. The next king Vijaya ruled for 6 years. His son Vasishthiputra Sri Chadha Satakarni ruled for 10 years.[14] Pulumavi IV, the last king of the main line, ruled until c. 225 CE. During his reign, several Buddhist monuments were constructed at sites including Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati.[64] Madhya Pradesh was also part of his kingdom.[14]
After the death of Pulumavi IV, the Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms:[14]
- Northern part, ruled by a collateral branch of the Satavahanas (which ended in early 4th century[64])
- Western part around Nashik, ruled by the Abhira dynasty
- Eastern part (Krishna-Guntur region), ruled by the Andhra Ikshvakus
- South-western parts (northern Karanataka), ruled by the Chutus of Banavasi
- South-eastern part, ruled by the Pallavas
Territorial extent
The Satavahana territory included northern Deccan region, spanning the present-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Telangana states. At times, their rule also extended to present-day Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. The Nashik prashasti inscription issued by Gautami Balashri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni, claims that her son ruled an extensive territory that stretched from Gujarat in the north to northern Karnataka in the south. It is not clear if Gautamiputra had effective control over these claimed territories. In any case, historical evidence suggests that his control over these territories did not last long.[93] Moreover, this realm was not continuous: many areas in this region remained under the control of the hunter-gatherers and other tribal communities.[94]
As per historian
The Satavahana capital kept shifting with time. The Nashik inscription describes Gautamiputra as the lord of Benakataka, suggesting that this was the name of his capital.
Several Satavahana-era inscriptions record grants to religious monasteries. The settlements most frequently mentioned as the residences of donors in these inscriptions include the sea ports of
Other important Satavahana sites in western Deccan include Govardhana, Nevasa, Ter, and Vadgaon-Madhavpur. The ones in eastern Deccan include Amaravati, Dhulikatta, Kotalingala and Peddabankur.[97]
Administration
The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories:[14]
- Rajan, the hereditary rulers
- Rajas, petty princes who struck coins in their own names
- Maharathis, hereditary lords who could grant villages in their own names and maintained matrimonial relations with the ruling family
- Mahabhojas
- Mahasenapati (civil administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a janapada under Pulumavi IV)
- Mahatalavara ("great watchman")
The royal princes (kumaras) were appointed as viceroys of the provinces.[14]
The ahara appears to have been the largest geographical subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several inscriptions refer to aharas named after the governors appointed to rule them (e.g. Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and Kapurahara).[93] This suggests that the Satavahanas attempted to build a formal administrative and revenue collection structure.[101]
The inscriptions of Gautamiputra Satakarni suggest the existence of a bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain how stable and effective this structure was. For example, two inscriptions from Nashik Cave 11 record donations of agricultural land to ascetic communities. They state that the ascetics would enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from the royal officials. The first inscription states that the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and preserved by the "great lords". The second inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister of the Govardhana ahara. It states that the charter was approved by a woman named Lota, who according to archaeologist James Burgess' interpretation, was the chief lady-in-waiting of Gautamiputra's mother.[102]
The Satavahana-era inscriptions mention three types of settlements: nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gāma (village).[93]
According to Sastri, "the Satavahanas were described as 'lords of the three oceans' and promoted overseas colonization and trade. Under them, Buddhist art attained the superb forms of beauty and elegance preserved to this day in the cave-temples of western India and the survivals from the stupa of Amaravati, Goli, Nagarjunikonda".[103] This tradition was followed by successors of Satavahana in the eastern and western Deccan.[103]
Economy
The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited from) economic expansion through intensification of agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.[104]
During the Satavahana period, several large settlements emerged in the fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The amount of land under agricultural use also expanded significantly, as a result of forest clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs.[101]
The exploitation of sites with mineral resources may have increased during the Satavahana period, leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites such as
The Satavahanas controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, they dominated the growing Indian trade with the Roman Empire. The
Religion
The Satavahanas patronized
The Naneghat inscription of Nayanika, recorded on the walls of a cave, mentions that her husband Satakarni I performed several Vedic sacrifices, including ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), rajasuya (royal consecration), and agnyadheya (fire ceremony).[105] The inscription also records substantial fees paid to Brahmin priests and attendees for these sacrifices. For example, 10,001 cows were granted for the Bhagala-Dasaratra sacrifice; and 24,400 coins were granted for another sacrifice, whose name is not clear.[106]
A number of Buddhist monastic sites emerged in the Deccan region during the Satavahana period. However, the exact relations between these monasteries and the Satavahana government is not clear.
However, Carla M. Sinopoli notes that although there are some records of donations to the Buddhist monasteries by the Satavahana royals, the vast majority of the donations were made by the non-royals. The most common among these donors were merchants, and many of the monasteries were located along the important trade routes.[97] The merchants probably donated to the monasteries, because these sites facilitated trade by serving as rest houses, and possibly by directly participating in the trade.[3] The monasteries appear to have been an important venue for displaying charitable donations, including the donations made to non-Buddhists (especially Brahmins).[100]
Language
Most of the Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in a Middle Indo-Aryan language.[107] This language has been termed "Prakrit" by some modern scholars, but this terminology can be considered correct only if the term "Prakrit" is defined broadly to include every Middle Indo-Aryan language that is "not exactly Sanskrit". The language of the inscriptions is actually closer to Sanskrit than to the literary Prakrit used in the Gaha Sattasai anthology attributed to the Satavahana king Hala.[108]
The Satvahanas also used Sanskrit in political inscriptions, but rarely.[2] A fragmentary inscription found close to the Nashik prashasti of Gautamiputra Satakarni uses Sanskrit verses in vasanta-tilaka metre to describe a deceased king (probably Gautamiputra). A Sanskrit inscription found at Sannati probably refers to Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, one of whose coins also features a Sanskrit legend.[107]
According to Gunadya, besides Sanskrit and Prakrit there is another language called 'Desi' which may mean the native language or the language of common man. Commenting on the Desi language Dr.D.C.Sircar remarks "It was apparently Early Telugu which was in older times very closer to Tamil than it is now was the mother tongue of the common people". Later Satavahana kings like Gauthamiputra Satakarni, Vastistiputra pulamovi and Yajna Satakarni had their names in two languages i.e.; Prakrit and Desi, a native language.[109]
The Satavahanas also issued bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan language on one side, and Desi language (possibly Old Tamil) on the other side.[110]
Inscriptions
Several Brahmi script inscriptions are available from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by individuals, and do not provide much information about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahana royals themselves also primarily concern religious donations, although some of them provide some information about the rulers and the imperial structure.[111]
The earliest extant Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19, which states that the cave was commissioned by Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of king Kanha.[9]
At
The next oldest Satavahana-era inscription appears on a sculpted gateway element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi. It states that the element was donated by Ananda, who was the son of Siri Satakarni's foreman of artisans. This inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni II.[29]
Coinage
Obverse: Portrait of the king. Legend in Prakrit in the Brahmi script (starting at 12 o'clock):
𑀭𑀜𑁄 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀺𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀧𑀼𑀎𑀼𑀫𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀲
Raño Vāsiṭhiputasa Siri-Puḷumāvisa
"Of King Lord Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi"
Reverse: Ujjain and arched-hill symbols. Legend in Dravidian (more closer to Tamil and to a lesser extent Telugu),[112] and the Dravidian script,[112] essentially similar to the Brahmi script[113] (starting at 12 o'clock):
𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀡𑀓𑀼 𑀯𑀸𑀳𑀺𑀣𑀺 𑀫𑀸𑀓𑀡𑀓𑀼 𑀢𑀺𑀭𑀼 𑀧𑀼𑀮𑀼𑀫𑀸𑀯𑀺𑀓𑀼
Arahaṇaku Vāhitti Mākaṇaku Tiru Pulumāviku[114]
or: Aracanaku Vācitti Makaṇaku Tiru Pulumāviku[115]
"Of King Tiru Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi"[113]
The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king
Thousands of lead, copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage.[111]
The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a
Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty. The names of 16 to 20 rulers appear on the various coins. Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana monarchs.[111]
The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end.
Other examples
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Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". British Museum
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Coin of GautamiputraYajna Satakarni(r. 167 – 196 CE).
Cultural achievements
The Satavahanas patronised the
Sculptures
Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar writes that "The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals."[121] Dhavalikar also writes that in Chankama "the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (chankama) to and fro."[122]
Along with some of the above major Satavahana sculptures some more sculptures existed—namely, Dvarapala, Gajalaksmi, Shalabhanjikas, Royal Procession, Decorative pillar, etc.[123]
Bronze
Several metal figurines are found that could be attributed to the Satavahanas. A hoard of unique bronze objects were also found from Bramhapuri. Numerous articles obtained from there were Indian but also reflected Roman and Italian influence. A small statue of Poseidon, wine jugs, and a plaque depicting Perseus and Andromeda were also obtained from the house from where the objects were found.[124] The fine elephant in the Ashmolean Museum, the Yaksi image in the British Museum,[125] and the cornucopia found in Posheri, kept at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya[126] can also be attributed to the Satavahana period.
Architecture
The sculptures of the
Paintings
The Satavahana paintings are the earliest surviving specimens—excluding prehistoric rock art—in India, and they are to be found only at the
The most important surviving painting of the Satavahana period at Ajanta is the Chhadanta Jataka in Cave No. 10, but that, too, is only fragmentary. It is a painting of an elephant named Bodhisattva with six tusks, related to a mythological story. The human figures, both male and female, are typically Satavahanas, almost identical with their counterparts on the Sanchi Gateways so far as their physiognomy, costumes, and jewellery are concerned. The only difference is that the Sanchi figures have shed some of their weight.[127]
Art of Amaravati
The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to
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Amaravati Marbles, fragments of Buddhist stupa
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Fragment of Amaravati stupa
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Amaravati style
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Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati Stupa, 2nd–3rd century CE.
List of rulers
Multiple Puranas contain chronology of Satavahana kings. However, there are inconsistencies among the various Puranas over the number of kings in the dynasty, the names of the kings, and the length of their rule. In addition, some of the kings listed in the Puranas are not attested via archaeological and numismatic evidence. Similarly, there are some kings known from coins and inscriptions, whose names are not found in the Puranic lists.[59][37]
The reconstructions of the Satavahana kings by historians fall into two categories:
- According to the first one, 30 Satavahana kings ruled for around 450 years, starting from Simuka's rule immediately after the fall of the Mauryan empire. This view relies heavily on the Puranas, and is now largely discredited.
- According to the second (and more widely accepted) category of reconstructions, the Satavahana rule started in around first century BCE. The chronologies in this category contain a smaller number of kings, and combine Puranic records with archaeological, numismatic and textual evidence.[129]
Because of uncertainty regarding the establishment date of the Satavahana kingdom, it is difficult to give absolute dates for the reigns of the Satavahana kings.[59] Therefore, many modern scholars do not assign absolute dates to the reigns of the historically attested Satavahana kings, and those who do vary greatly with each other.[16]
List based on Archeology
Himanshu Prabha Ray provides the following chronology, based on archaeological and numismatic evidence:[23]
Serial. Nu | Ruler | Reign | |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Simuka | before 100 BCE | |
2 | Kanha | c. 100–70 BCE | |
3 | Satakarni I
|
c. 70–60 BCE | |
4 | Satakarni II | c. 50–25 BCE | |
Kshatrapa interregnum rule with vassal Satavahana kings
| |||
5 | Hāla (vassal under Kshatrapas) | c. 20–24 CE | |
6 | Nahapana (Kshatrapas King) | c. 54–100 CE | |
Restored Satavahana dynasty | |||
7 | Gautamiputra Satakarni | c. 86–110 CE | |
8 | Pulumavi
|
c. 110–138 CE | |
9 | Vashishtiputra Satakarni | c. 138–145 CE | |
10 | Shiva Shri Pulumavi | c. 145–152 CE | |
11 | Shiva Skanda Satakarni | c. 145–152 CE | |
12 | Yajna Shri Satakarni | c. 152–181 CE | |
13 | Vijaya Satakarni | until c. 200 CE | |
Regional Satavahana rulers of south-eastern Deccan:[104] | |||
14 | Chandra Shri | 3rd century CE | |
15 | Pulumavi II | 3rd century CE | |
16 | Abhira Isvarasena | 3rd century CE | |
17 | Madhariputra Sakasena | 3rd century CE | |
18 | Haritiputra Satakarni | 3rd century CE |
List based on Puranas
The various Puranas give different lists of the Satavahana rulers. The Matsya Purana states that 30 Andhra kings ruled for 460 years, but some of its manuscripts name only 19 kings whose reigns add up to 448.5 years. The Vayu Purana also mentions that there were 30 Andhra kings, but its various manuscripts name only 17, 18, and 19 kings respectively; the reigns add up to 272.5, 300, and 411 years respectively. Many of these kings are not attested by historical evidence. On the other hand, some Satavahana kings attested by numismatic evidence (such as Rudra Satakarni) are not mentioned in the Puranas at all.[130]
Different scholars have explained these anomalies in different ways. Scholars such as
The names of the Andhra kings (in IAST), as mentioned in the various Puranas, are given below. These names vary across different manuscripts of the same Puranas, and some names are missing in some of the manuscripts. The list given below for each Purana contains the most exhaustive version. In the Puranas, Krishna (IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is described as brother of the first king, who overthrew the Kanva king Susharman. All other kings are described as sons of their predecessors. The first king of the Andhra-Bhrityas is also known as Shudraka or Suraka in the Kumarika Khanda of Skanda Purana (not present in the table below).[131]
# | Ruler | Coins | Epigraphy | Bhagavata | Brahmanda | Matsya | Vayu | Vishnu | Reign (years) | Alternative names and reigns[133][134] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Simuka | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 23 | Śiśuka (Matsya), Sindhuka (Vayu), Śipraka (Vishnu), Chhismaka (Brahmanda) |
2 | Kṛṣṇa (Kanha) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 18 | |
3 | Śatakarṇi I |
✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 10 | Śantakarṇa (Bhagavata), Mallakarni - 10 or 18 years (Matsya), Śri Śatakarṇi (Vishnu) |
4 | Pūrṇotsanga | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 18 | Paurṇamāsa (Bhagavata) | |||
5 | Skandastambhi | ✓ | ✓ | 18 | Śrivasvani (Matsya) | |||||
6 | Śatakarṇi II | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 56 | |
7 | Lambodara | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 18 | ||||
8 | Āpīlaka | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 12 | Apītaka (Matsya), Ivīlaka (Vishnu), Hivilaka (Bhagavata) | |
9 | Meghasvāti | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 18 | Saudāsa (Brahmanda) | ||
10 | Svāti (Śatakarṇi) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 12 | ||||
11 | Skandasvāti | ✓ | ✓ | 7 | Skandasvati - 28 years (Brahmanda) | |||||
12 | Mṛgendra-Svātikarṇa | ✓ | ✓ | 3 | Mahendra Śatakarṇi (Brahmanda) | |||||
13 | Kuntala-Svātikarṇa | ✓ | ✓ | 8 | ||||||
14 | Svātikarṇa | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | ||||||
15 | Pulomavi I | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 24 | Pulomavi - 36 years (Matsya), Aṭamāna (Bhagavata), Paṭimavi (Vayu), Paṭumat (Vishnu), Ābhi - Brahmanda | ||
16 | Gaurakṛṣṇa | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 25 | Gorakśāśvaśri (Matsya), Nemi Kṛṣṇa (Vayu), Arishṭakarman (Vishnu) | |||
17 | Hāla | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 5 | Hāleya (Bhagavata); 1 year in one manuscript | |||
18 | Mandalaka | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 5 | Talaka (Bhagavata), Saptaka (Vayu), Pattalaka (Vishnu), Bhavaka (Brahmanda) | ||
19 | Purindrasena | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 5 | Purīṣabhiru (Bhagavata), Purikaṣena - 21 years (Vayu), Pravillasena (Vishnu), Pravillasena - 12 years (Brahmanda) | ||
20 | Sundara Śatakarṇi | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 1 | Sundara Svatikarṇa (Matsya), Sunandana (Bhagavata) | ||
21 | Cakora Śatakarṇi (Chakora) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 0.5 | |||
22 | Śivasvāti | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 28 | Svātisena - 1 year (Brahmanda), Śivasvāmi (Vayu) | ||
23 | Gautamīputra | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 21 | Yantramati - 34 years (Brahmanda), Gotamīputra (Bhagavata and Vishnu); 24 years according to inscriptions |
24 | Pulomavi II (Vashishtiputra) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 28 | Purīmān (Bhagavata), Pulomat (Matsya), Pulimat (Vishnu). See also: Vashishtiputra Satakarni. | ||
25 | Śivaśri | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 7 | Madaśirā (Bhagavata) | |
26 | Śivaskanda Śatakarṇi | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 7 | ||
27 | Yajñaśri | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 29 | Yajñaśri Śatakarṇi - 19 years (Brahmanda), Yajñaśri - 9, 20 or 29 years (Matsya) |
28 | Vijaya | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 6 | ||
29 | Candraśri (Chandrashri) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 3 | Candravijaya (Bhagavata), Daṇḍaśri (Brahmanda and Vayu), Vada-Śri or Candra-Śri-Śatakarṇi - 10 years (Matsya) |
30 | Pulomavi III | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | 7 | Sulomadhi (Bhagavata), Pulomavit (Matsya), Pulomarchis (Vishnu) |
List of rulers
S. Nagaraju relies on the Puranic lists of 30 kings, and gives the following regnal dates:[79]
S. No | Ruler | Reign |
---|---|---|
1 | Simuka | (r. 228 – 205 BCE) |
2 | Krishna | (r. 205 – 187 BCE) |
3 | Satakarni I | (r. 187 – 177 BCE) |
4 | Purnotsanga | (r. 177 – 159 BCE) |
5 | Skandhastambhi | (r. 159 – 141 BCE) |
6 | Satakarni II | (r. 141 – 85 BCE) |
7 | Lambodara | (r. 85 – 67 BCE) |
8 | Apilaka | (r. 67 – 55 BCE) |
9 | Meghasvati | (r. 55 – 37 BCE) |
10 | Svati | (r. 37 – 19 BCE) |
11 | Skandasvati | (r. 19 – 12 BCE) |
12 | Mrigendra Satakarni | (r. 12 – 9 BCE) |
13 | Kunatala Satakarni | (r. 9 – 1 BCE) |
14 | Satakarni III | (r. 1 BCE – 1 CE) |
15 | Pulumavi I | (r. 1 – 36 CE) |
16 | Gaura Krishna | (r. 36 – 61 CE) |
17 | Hāla | (r. 61 – 66 CE) |
18 | Mandalaka aka Puttalaka or Pulumavi II | (r. 69 – 71 CE) |
19 | Purindrasena | (r. 71 – 76 CE) |
20 | Sundara Satakarni | (r. 76 – 77 CE) |
21 | Chakora Satakarni | (r. 77 – 78 CE) |
22 | Shivasvati | (r. 78 – 106 CE) |
23 | Gautamiputra Satkarni |
(r. 106 – 130 CE) |
24 | Vasisthiputra aka Pulumavi III |
(r. 130 – 158 CE) |
25 | Shiva Sri Satakarni | (r. 158 – 165 CE) |
26 | Shivaskanda Satakarni | (r. 165–172) |
27 | Sri Yajna Satakarni | (r. 172 – 201 CE) |
28 | Vijaya Satakarni | (r. 201 – 207 CE) |
29 | Chandra Sri Satakarni | (r. 207 – 214 CE) |
30 | Pulumavi IV | (r. 217 – 224 CE) |
Mid-Chronology of Satavahana rulers
Apart from the two traditional views (long and short chronologies) there is another kind of analysis pointing out to a "Mid-Chronology", as it was already proposed by Dr. Dehejia and others, and particularly most recently by Shailendra Bhandare, who regards Satavahana's rule extended more than three centuries (c. 150 BCE to 250 CE)[135] with the flourish of trans-national trade, urbanism and monumental architecture in South India.
Bhandare regards Simuka to have ruled since around 160-150 BCE and that this date would still fit in well with Pargiter's 460 years to the Satavahanas, as it would fix the end of the dynasty around 300 CE, not too far from the mid-3rd century as consensus approximately lies.[136] Regarding Siri Satakani and his wife Naganika, Bhandhare considers their rule to have been somewhere around 110 +/- 20 BCE.[136]
List by Shailendra Bhandare
Bhandare also suggests the following sequence of reigns, based on his analysis of Satavahana coinage:[137]
- Gautamiputa Satakani (ca. 60–85 CE)
- Vasithiputa Siri Pulumayi (ca. 85–125 CE)
- Vasithiputa Siri Satakani (ca. 125–152 CE)
- Vasithiputa Siva Siri Pulumayi (ca. 152–160 CE)
- Vasithiputa Siri Khada Satakani (ca. 160–165 CE)
- Vasithiputa Vijaya Satakani (ca. 165–170 CE)
- Siri Yaña Satakani (ca. 170–200 CE)
- Gotamiputa Siri Cada (ca. 200–215 CE)
- Gotamiputa Siri Vijaya Satakani (ca. 215–225 CE)
Shailendra Bhandare's edited list by Andrew Ollett
On the other hand, based to a large degree on Shailendra Bhandare's work, with slight corrections, Andrew Ollett (2017) mentions the following reigns for the whole Satavahana dynasty:[138]
- Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana (ca. 120–96 BCE)
- Krsna (ca. 96–88 BCE)
- Sri Satakarni (ca. 88–42 BCE)
- Sakti
- Mantalaka
- Sundara
- Gautamiputra Siva Satakarni (?–60 CE)
- Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 60–84 CE)
- Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 84–119 CE)
- Vasisthiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 119–148 CE)
- Vasisthiputra Sivasri Pulumavi (ca. 148–156 CE)
- Vasisthiputra Sriskanda Satakarni (ca. 156–170 CE)
- Gautamiputra Sriyajña Satakarni (ca. 171–199 CE)
- Gautamiputra Srivijaya Satakarni (ca. 200–205 CE)
- Vasisthiputra Sricanda Satakarni (ca. 206–220 CE)
- Mathariputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 220–230 CE)
See also
References
Citations
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ a b Ollett 2017, p. 39.
- ^ a b c Sinopoli 2001, p. 172.
- ^ "The Satavahana Phase". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
- ^ K.M., Dayashankar (26 September 2014). "Koti Lingala, a major pilgrim destination". The Hindu. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ a b c Burgess. Epigraphia Indica Vol 8. p. 93.
- ISBN 9788120709300.
- ^ Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri (23 February 2024). Political History of Ancient India (Seventh ed.). University of Calcutta,Kolkata. pp. 365–366.
- ^ a b c d e f g Sinopoli 2001, p. 168.
- ^ "CNG: eAuction 417. INDIA, Post-Mauryan (Deccan). Satavahanas (Andhras). Śri Satakarṇi. Circa 70-60 BC. BI Karshapana (19mm, 3.44 g)". www.cngcoins.com. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-7154-038-9
- ^ Shastri 1998, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Sarma 1980, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Sen 1999, pp. 172–176.
- ^ Kosambi 1975, p. 243.
- ^ a b c Sinopoli 2001, p. 166.
- ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. p. 118.
- ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1975). Tamil literature. p. 42.
- ^ "The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India". Numismatic Society of India. 53. 1991.
- ^ "Pauni : (Vidarbha) The latest site which contributed valuable numismatic evidence confirming, once and for all, ancient Vidarbha's early Satavahana affiliation is Pauni, in district Bhandara. Two seasons of joint excavation (1968-70) by the Nagpur University and the Archaeological Survey of India yielded reliable coin data from both the Stupa sites." in Sarma 1980, p. 38
- ^ "Coins of a number of Satavahana rulers from Gautamiputra Satakarni onward have been discovered in large numbers in the Vidarbha region. However, no coin of any earlier king has been reported so far. The present coin is, therefore, the first coin of Sri-Satakarni to be reported from Vidarbha. Another potin coin of Sri-Satakarni has been recently discovered at Pauni 2. The discovery of these coins indicates for the first time the possibility of the rule of the early Satavahanas over the Vidarbha region." Deo, Shantaram Bhalchandra; Joshi, Jagat Pati (1972). Pauni Excavation, 1969-70. Nagpur University. p. 99.
- ^ "The bas-relief at Pauni or Bharhut in India, which dates back to about the second century B.C., represents a vacant throne protected by a naga with many heads. It also bears an inscription of the Naga Mucalinda (Fig. 3)" SPAFA Digest: Journal Of SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA). SPAFA Co-ordinating Unit. 1987. p. 4.
- ^ a b c Sinopoli 2001, p. 167.
- ISBN 9788120709300.
- ^ a b Ray 1986, p. 43.
- ^ a b Shastri 1999, p. 306.
- ^ Rao 1993, p. 5.
- ^ a b Shastri, Ajay Mitra. "Sātavāhanas: Original Home and Nomenclature.” Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 54/55, 1994, p. 381
- ^ a b c d e f Sinopoli 2001, p. 169.
- ^ Sarma 1980, pp. 126–130.
- ^ a b c Shimada 2012, p. 45.
- ISBN 9783447025225.
- ISBN 978-9004185258.
- ^ Rao 1976, p. 8.
- ^ Singh 2008, pp. 381–382.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, pp. 168–170.
- ^ a b c d e Chattopadhyaya 1974, pp. 17–56.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Sen 1999, p. 172.
- ^ a b Ollett 2017, p. 194.
- ^ a b Poonacha, K.P., (2013). Excavations at Kanaganahalli, Archaeological Survey of India, Delhi
- ^ a b Nakanishi, Maiko, and Oskar von Hinuber, (2014). Kanaganahalli Inscriptions (Supplement to the Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University for the Academic Year 2013, Vol. 17., Tokyo.
- ^ Raychaudhuri 2006, pp. 342, 360, 363–364.
- ^ Ranade, P. V. "A New Interpretation—The Origin of The Satavahanas." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 26, 1964, p. 62
- ^ Shimada 2012, p. 43.
- ISBN 978-81-7022-248-4.
- ^ B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao (1976). The Age of Satavahanas. Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi. p. 10.
Arguments are put forth trying to prove differently that they were Sudras, Kshatriyas and Brahmins.
- OCLC 161579.
- ^ JSTOR 4414819.
- ^ Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri (23 February 2024). Political History of Ancient India (Seventh ed.). University of Calcutta,Kolkata. pp. 365–366.
- JSTOR 29757390.
- JSTOR 44142769.
- ^ Sen 1999, pp. 173–174.
- ISBN 9788121503488.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, pp. 162–163.
- ^ a b Dhavalikar 1996, p. 133.
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ Shastri 1998, p. 42.
- ^ a b c Singh 2008, pp. 381–384.
- ^ Thapar 2013, p. 296.
- ^ Zin, Monika (2018). "Kanaganahalli in Satavahana art and Buddhism" (PDF). Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 41: 540, note 7.
- ^ "Looking at that one slab from Kanaganahalli (fig. 14), 40 in the upper panel, we see a king. We do not know exactly what the lower part showed because its large part is missing; in any case it is a male person of rank. The label of the inscription reads: rājā Siri Chimuko Sādavāhano nāgarāya Sakhadhābho (?). The inscription lets us believe that it is the historical person of Śrī Simuka founder of the Sātavāhana dynasty who is depicted here, and that he was portrayed on the slab together with a nāgarāja." in Zin, Monika (2012). "The Buddha's Relics and the Nāgas an Attempt to Throw Light on Some Depictions in the Amaravati School". South Asian Archaeology and Art. 2: 763, and fig.14.
- ^ a b John Marshall, "A guide to Sanchi", p.48
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Higham 2009, p. 299.
- ^ Singh 2008, p. 382.
- ^ Sen 1999, pp. 176–177.
- Bhagwanlal Indraji (1885). "The Hâtigumphâ and three other inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves near Cuttack". Proceedings of the Leyden International Oriental Congress for 1883. pp. 144–180.
- ^ Chattopadhyaya 1974, pp. 44–50.
- ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3.
- ISBN 9781259063237.
- ISBN 9788120808249.
- ^ Ollett 2017, pp. 190, 195.
- ^ Falk, Harry, (2009). "Two Dated Satavahana Epigraphs", in Indo-Iranian Journal 52, pp. 197-200.
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, p. 19.
- ^ Original text "L1: Rano Siri Satakarnisa L2: avesanisa Vasithiputasa L3: Anamdasa danam", Marshall, John. A guide to Sanchi. p. 52.
- ^ a b Fynes 1995, p. 43.
- ^ a b Fynes 1995, p. 44.
- ^ Hultzsch, E. (1906). Epigraphia Indica Vol.8. p. 60.
- ^ ISBN 9788192510750.
- ^ a b Bhandare, Shailendra, (1999). Historical Analysis of the Satavahana Era: A study of Coins, University of Mumbai, pp. 168-178.
- ^ Shimada, Akira, (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca 300 BCE - 300 CE), Brill, p. 51.
- ^ von Hinuber, Oskar, (2016). "Buddhist Texts and Buddhist Images: New Evidence from Kanaganahalli (Karnataka/India)", ARIRIAB Vol. XIX (March 2016), p. 16.
- ^ a b Ollett 2017, p. 189.
- Pandavleni Caves in Nashik
- ^ Shimada, Akira, (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca 300 BCE - 300 CE), Brill, p. 52.
- ^ von Hinuber, Oskar, (2016). "Buddhist Texts and Buddhist Images: New Evidence from Kanaganahalli (Karnataka/India)", ARIRIAB Vol. XIX (March 2016), p. 15.
- ^ Dutta 1990, p. 52.
- ^ ""The different branches of the Satavahana family, which ruled in different parts of the kingdom after the decline in central authority, were soon ousted by new powers some of which were probably feudatories at the outset." Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- ISBN 978-1-316-29777-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0.
- ISBN 978-3-8382-1518-1.
- PMID 37510249.
- ^ a b c d e Sinopoli 2001, p. 170.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, p. 439.
- JSTOR 44002572.
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, p. 22.
- ^ a b c Sinopoli 2001, p. 171.
- ISBN 9780199088683.
- ^ Singh 2008, p. 333.
- ^ a b c Sinopoli 2001, p. 176.
- ^ a b c Sinopoli 2001, p. 173.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, p. 177.
- ^ a b Sastri, Nilakanta K. A. (1955). A History of South India. Oxford University Press. p. 3.
- ^ a b Sinopoli 2001, p. 178.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, p. 175.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, pp. 175–176.
- ^ a b Ollett 2017, p. 41.
- ^ Ollett 2017, p. 38.
- OCLC 634973239.
- ^ Ollett 2017, p. 43.
- ^ a b c d Sinopoli 2001, p. 163.
- ^ ISBN 9788120829732.
- ^ a b c "The Sātavāhana issues are uniscriptural, Brahmi but bilingual, Prākrit and Old Tamil/Proto-Telugu." in Epigraphia Andhrica. 1975. p. x.
- ^ Epigraphia Āndhrica. Government of Andhra Pradesh. 1969. p. XV.
- ^ Nākacāmi, Irāmaccantiran̲; Nagaswamy, R. (1981). Tamil Coins: A Study. Institute of Epigraphy, Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology. p. 132.
- ISBN 9780520059917.
- ^ Singh 2008, p. 53.
- JSTOR 24650366.
- ISBN 978-1-136-81801-1.
- ISBN 9788126011940.
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, p. 57: "The Satavahana sculptures unfortunately has never been recognized as an independent school in spite of the fact it has its own distinctive characteristic features. The earliest in point of time is that in the Bhaja Vihara cave which marks the beginning of sculptural art in the Satavahana dominion around 200BC. It is profusely decorated with carvings, and even pillars have a lotus capital crowned with sphinx-like mythic animals."
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, p. 63: "...the panel occurring on the west pillar of Northern Gateway portrays a very important event in Buddha's life. It depicts votaries, two each on either side of what looks like a ladder which actually is the promenade which Buddha is supposed to have walked. It is said that Buddha, after attaining Enlightment, spent four weeks near the Bodhi tree. Of these, the third week he spent walking along the promenade (chankama) to and fro."
- ^ These sculptures are mentioned in Dhavalikar 2004. Only names have been mentioned.
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, p. 91.
- ISBN 9788131719589.
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, p. 95.
- ^ Dhavalikar 2004, pp. 77, 81, 84.
- ^ Rao 1994, p. 20.
- ^ Sinopoli 2001, pp. 166–168.
- ^ a b Dhavalikar 1996, p. 134.
- ^ Kr̥shṇājī Pāṇḍuraṅga Kulakarṇī (1927). Sanskrit Drama & Dramatists: Their Chronology, Mind and Art.
- ^ Dhavalikar 1996, p. 139.
- ^ Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1884). Early History of the Dekkan Down to the Mahomedan Conquest. Printed at the Government Central Press. p. 25.
- ^ Robert Sewell (1884). Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern India. Vol. 2. Government Press. p. 145.
- ^ "Deccan Heritage Foundation". Deccan Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- ^ a b Bhandare, Shailen (January 2011). "Linking the Past: Overstruck Coins and the Chronology of the Satavahanas". 'Felicitas': Essay in Numismatics, Epigraphy and History in Honour of Joe Cribb, Eds. Shailendra Bhandare and Sanjay Garg. Retrieved 11 December 2019 – via www.academia.edu.
- ^ Shimada, Akira, (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca 300 BCE - 300 CE), Brill. pp. 51-52.
- ^ Ollett 2017, pp. 189, 190.
Sources
- Chattopadhyaya, Sudhakar (1974). Some Early Dynasties of South India. ISBN 9788120829411.
- ISBN 978-81-88934-04-1.
- JSTOR 41702166.
- Dutta, Mala (1990). A Study of the Sātavāhana Coinage. Harman. ISBN 978-81-85151-39-7.
- Falk, Harry (2009). "Two Dated Sātavāhana Epigraphs". Indo-Iranian Journal. 52 (2): 197–206. ISSN 0019-7246.
- Fynes, R.C.C. (1995). "The Religious Patronage of the Satavahana Dynasty". South Asian Studies. 11 (1): 43–50. .
- Higham, Charles (2009). Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase. ISBN 9781438109961.
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- Ollett, Andrew (2017). Language of the Snakes. University of California Press. p. 194. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt1w8h1vk.
- Pradhan, Shruti S. (1994). "FROM THE SĀTAVĀHANAS TO THE ANDHRAS AND THE ANDHRA-BHRTYAS". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 75 (1/4): 121–142. JSTOR 41694410.
- Rao, B. S. L. Hanumantha (1976). The Age of Satavahanas. Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi.
- Rao, P. Raghunadha (1993). Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh. Sterling Publishers. ISBN 978-81-207-1495-3.
- Rao (1994), History and Culture of Andhra pradesh: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, Sterling Publishers, ISBN 978-81-207-1719-0
- Ray, Himanshu Prabha (1986). Monastery and guild: commerce under the Sātavāhanas. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195619416.
- Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (2006). Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty. Cosmo Publications. ISBN 978-81-307-0291-9.
- Sarma, I. K. (1980). Coinage of the Satavahana Empire. Agam.
- Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 9788122411980.
- Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1999). The Age of the Sātavāhanas. Aryan. ISBN 978-81-7305-158-6.
- Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1998). The Sātavāhanas and the Western Kshatrapas: a historical framework. Dattsons. ISBN 978-81-7192-031-0.
- Shimada, Akira (9 November 2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-23283-9.
- Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
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- ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2
External links
- Media related to Satavahana at Wikimedia Commons