Scarab (artifact)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
impression seals which were widely popular throughout ancient Egypt. They still survive in large numbers today, and are popular among collectors of ancient artifacts. Through their inscriptions and typology, they prove to be an important source of information for archaeologists and historians of the ancient world, and represent a significant body of ancient Egyptian art.[1]

Though primarily worn as amulets and sometimes rings, scarabs were also inscribed for use as personal or administrative seals or were incorporated into other kinds of jewelry. Some scarabs were created for political or diplomatic purposes to commemorate or advertise royal achievements. Additionally, scarabs held religious significance and played a role in Egyptian funerary practices.[2]

Dating and evolution

Likely due to their connections to the Egyptian god Khepri, amulets in the form of scarab beetles became enormously popular in Ancient Egypt by the early Middle Kingdom (approx. 2000 BC) and remained popular for the rest of the pharaonic period and beyond.[3]

Starting in the

middle Bronze Age, other ancient peoples of the Mediterranean and the Middle East imported scarabs from Egypt and also produced scarabs in Egyptian or local styles, especially in the Levant.[4]

By the end of the

cylinder seals and circular "button seals" with simple geometric designs. Throughout the period in which they were made, scarabs were often engraved with the names of pharaohs and other royal figures. In the Middle Kingdom, scarabs were also engraved with the names and titles of officials, to be used as official seals. During the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, scarabs with short prayers or mottos became popular, though these scarabs are somewhat difficult to translate.[5]

Description and materials

Commemorative glazed steatite marriage scarab for Queen Tiye and Amenhotep III

Scarabs were typically carved or molded in the form of a scarab beetle (usually identified as

impression seal. They were usually drilled from end to end to allow them to be strung on a thread or incorporated into a swivel ring. The common length for standard scarabs is between 6 mm and 40 mm and most are between 10 mm and 20 mm. Larger scarabs were made from time to time for particular purposes, such as the commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III.[6]

Scarabs were generally either carved from stone, or molded from

steatite, a soft stone that becomes hard when fired (forming enstatite), or porcelain.[7] In contrast, hardstone scarabs most commonly were composed of green jasper, amethyst and carnelian
.

From the late Old Kingdom onwards, scarab rings developed from simple scarabs tied to fingers with threads into rings with scarab bezels in the Middle Kingdom, and further into rings with cast scarabs in the New Kingdom, typically strung on gold wire rather than string. Bezels emerged during the Old Kingdom period, often as amulets which were meant to represent Ra, the Egyptian solar god. Scarabs used for jewelry and rings were often composed of glazed steatite, which was a popular medium in ancient Egypt, though the glaze on many of these rings has been eroded over time due to weathering.[8]

While the majority of scarabs would originally have been green or blue, much of the colored glazes have become discolored or erased by the elements over time, leaving most steatite scarabs appearing white or brown.

Religious and historical significance

Scarabs are identified as the dung beetle Scarabaeus sacer, pictured here rolling a ball of dung.

In ancient Egypt, the Scarab Beetle was a highly significant symbolic representation of the divine manifestation of the morning sun. The Egyptian god Khepri was believed to roll the sun across the sky each day at daybreak. In a similar fashion, some beetles of the family Scarabaeidae use their legs to roll dung into balls. Ancient Egyptians believed this action was symbolic of the sun's east to west journey across the sky.[9] Thus, the scarab was seen as a reflection of the eternal cycle of life and was characterized as representing the idea of rebirth and regeneration.[10][11]

The scarab has ties to themes of manifestation and growth, and scarabs have been found all across Egypt which originate from many different periods in Egyptian history. Scarabs have also been found inside of sunken ships, like one discovered in Uluburun, Turkey, which was inscribed with the name of the Egyptian queen Nefertiti. This scarab was among many luxury items excavated from the wreckage. Its unique inscription provides a framework of time for when the sinkage took place. This discovery gives ancient historians insight into the nature of Bronze Age trading goods and commercial networks of exchange within the Mediterranean.[12]

Types of scarabs

Funerary scarabs

See also: Heart scarab

Scarab amulets were sometimes placed in tombs as part of the deceased's personal effects or jewelry, though not all scarabs had an association with ancient Egyptian funerary practices. There are, however, three types of scarabs that seem to be specifically related to ancient funerary practices: heart scarabs, pectoral scarabs and naturalistic scarabs.

The Heart Scarab of Hatnefer, on display at the MET Museum of Art

Heart scarabs became popular in the early

hieroglyphs which name the deceased and repeat some or all of spell 30B from the Book of the Dead. The spell commands the deceased's heart not to give evidence against the deceased when he/she is being judged by the gods of the underworld.[14][15]

From the

Twenty-fifth Dynasty onwards, large (typically 3–8 cm long), relatively flat uninscribed pectoral scarabs were sewn together with a pair of separately made outstretched wings, onto the chests of mummies via holes formed at the edge of the scarab. Pectoral scarabs appear to be associated with the god Khepri, who is often depicted in the same form.[16]

Egyptian faience naturalistic scarab, 665-342 BC, Late Period, Walters Art Museum

Naturalistic scarabs are relatively small (typically 2 cm to 3 cm long), made from a wide variety of hardstones and Egyptian Faience, and are distinguished from other scarabs by their naturalistic carved three dimensional bases, which often also include an integral suspension loop running widthways. Groups of these funerary scarabs, often made from different materials, formed part of the battery of amulets which were believed by ancient Egyptians to protect mummies throughout the Late Period.

Ancient Egyptians believed that when a person died and underwent their final judgement, the gods of the underworld would ask many detailed and intricate questions which had to be answered precisely and ritually, according to the Book of the Dead. Since many ancient Egyptians were illiterate, even placing a copy of this scroll in their coffin would not be enough to protect them from judgment for giving a wrong answer. As a result, the priests would read the questions and their appropriate answers to the beetle, which would then be killed, mummified, and placed in the ear of the deceased. It was believed that when the gods then asked their questions, the ghostly scarab would whisper the correct answer into the ear of the supplicant, who could then answer the gods wisely and correctly.

Commemorative scarabs

See also: Commemorative scarabs of Amenhotep III

Kushite pharaoh Shabaka (721–707 BC) had large scarabs made to commemorate his victories in imitation of those previously produced for Amenhotep III.[17]

Royal-name scarabs

Scarabs are often found inscribed with the names of pharaohs and more rarely with the names of their queens and other members of the royal family. Generally, there is a correlation between how long a king or queen ruled and how many scarabs have been found bearing one or more of their names. Famously, a golden scarab of

Twenty-sixth Dynasty
, when there was considerable interest in and imitation of the works of well-established kings of the past.

Scarabs with the throne names of Thutmose III and Hatshepsut, MET

Scarabs have also been found in vast numbers bearing the throne name of the

Rameses II (1279–1212 BC) User Maat Re ("the justice of Ra is powerful"), which is commonly found on scarabs which otherwise do not appear to date from his reign. The birth names of pharaohs were also popular names among private individuals and so, for example, a scarab simply bearing the name "Amenhotep
" need not be associated with any particular king who also bore that name.

The significance of a scarab bearing a royal name is unclear and probably changed over time and from scarab to scarab. Many may simply have been made privately in honor of a ruler during or after his lifetime. Some may also have been royal gifts. In some cases, scarabs with royal names may have been official seals or badges of office, perhaps connected with the royal estates or household. Others, although relatively few, may have been personal seals owned by the royal individual named on them. As the king fulfilled many different roles in ancient Egyptian society, so scarabs naming a pharaoh may have had a direct or indirect connection with a wide range of private and public activities.

Private-name scarabs

Scarab of the high steward Ameny

During the late Middle Kingdom (1850-1782 BC), significant cultural and political developments led to scarabs being inscribed with the names and titles of non-royal individuals, usually officials within the bureaucracy.

18th Dynasty.[19] Although the scarab ceased its utilitarian use as a personal seal soon after the collapse of the Middle Kingdom, it retained its religious and magical importance throughout the dynastic period.[20]

Phoenician scarabs

Etruscans in the 5th century by Greek/Phoenician merchants.[22] The Etruscan scarab was most popular in Vulci and Tarquinia
from the last decades of the 6th century BC.

By the 5th century BC, Phoenician scarabs were carved with not only Egyptian themes but also Etruscan and western Greek imagery. The innovations include Egyptianizing (the standard of Phoenicia), native Levantine (more Syrian in style and subject matter), and Hellenizing (mainly following late Archaic Greek subject matter and styles, also called Graeco-Phoenician).

Canaanite scarabs

See also: Anra scarab

Canaanite scarabs imitate contemporary Egyptian late Middle Kingdom designs whilst also introducing new decorative elements and symbols.[23] Scarabs made by Canaanite artisans show extensive use of hatching and cross-hatching on the bodies of the various figures, representations of animals and humans, and the use of the palm branch.[24][25]

Canaanites.[26]: 277 Anra scarabs are identified by an undeciphered
and variable sequence of Egyptian hieroglyphs on the base of the scarab.

Gallery

  • Signet ring, with cartouche of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun :'Perfect God, Lord of the Two Lands' – ('Neter-Nefer, Neb-taui')
    Signet ring, with cartouche of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun
  • Faience pectoral scarab with spread wings and bead net, Royal Pump Room, Harrogate
    Faience pectoral scarab with spread wings and bead net, Royal Pump Room, Harrogate
  • A modern scarab produced for the tourist trade.
    A modern scarab produced for the tourist trade.
  • A pendant in the shape of a winged scarab carrying the Eye of Horus, from the treasury of Tut's tomb
    A pendant in the shape of a winged scarab carrying the Eye of Horus, from the treasury of Tut's tomb
  • Carnelian Etruscan scarab 500–450 BC
    Carnelian Etruscan scarab 500–450 BC
  • Sheshi royal scarab locations in the Levant, Egypt and Nubia. Scarabs are the only evidence for his reign
    Sheshi royal scarab locations in the Levant, Egypt and Nubia. Scarabs are the only evidence for his reign

Literary and popular culture reference

  • Fourth Dynasty
    ") as a key plot device.
  • In British crime novelist Dorothy L. Sayers's novel Murder Must Advertise a catapulted scarab is the murder weapon.
  • The rock band Journey uses various types of scarabs as their main logo and in the cover art of the albums Departure, Captured, Escape, Greatest Hits, Arrival, Generations, Revelation, and The Essential Journey.
  • The Dutch print-maker M. C. Escher (1898–1972) created a wood engraving in 1935 depicting two scarabs or dung beetles.
  • In Stephen Sommers' The Mummy (1999), the scarab is used as a deadly, ancient beetle that eats the internal and external organs, killing whom ever it comes into contact with.
  • In The Twilight Zone episode Queen of the Nile, the main character Pamela Morris has an ancient scarab beetle amulet that can drain the youth of anyone she places it on, enabling her to remain young forever. Morris tells her final victim that she got it from "the pharaohs, who understood its power."
  • In Disney's animated movie Aladdin, the location of the Cave of Wonders is revealed when two halves of a scarab beetle are joined.
  • Scarabs are used as the monetary unit of planet Sauria (originally known as Dinosaur Planet) in the 2002 video game Star Fox Adventures.
  • Scarabs appear in droves in Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation. They deal damage to Lara Croft throughout the game.
  • In
    Dungeons and Dragons
    , there is a magic item called the Scarab of Protection. It protects its wearer against deathly curses and similar effects, usually caused by undead monsters and necromancy. However, each scarab can only stop so many of these attacks before it is destroyed, crumbling to dust.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Ancient Egyptian Scarabs: 10 Curated Facts to Know". TheCollector. 2021-08-20. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  2. ^ admin. "Heart Scarab". JHU Archaeological Museum. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  3. ^ Museum, Egypt (2023-10-21). "Brooch of Ancient Egyptian Scarab in a Modern Winged Mount". Egypt Museum. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  4. ^ Ben-Tor, Daphna. "Egyptian-Levantine Relations and Chronology in the MBA: Scarab Research". Academia.
  5. ^ "Scarab Inscribed with Blessing Related to Amun | New Kingdom–Third Intermediate Period". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  6. ^ "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), SCALPTURA". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  7. ^ "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), SCALPTURA". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
  8. ^ Newberry, Percy E. (1908). Scarabs; an introduction to the study of Egyptian seals and signet rings. University of Liverpool. Institute of archaeology. Egyptian antiquities. London: A. Constable.
  9. ^ admin. "Scarabs". JHU Archaeological Museum. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  10. ^ "Ancient Egyptian Scarabs: 10 Curated Facts to Know". TheCollector. 2021-08-20. Retrieved 2024-03-01.
  11. ^ Stünkel, Authors: Isabel. "Ancient Egyptian Amulets | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  12. ^ Archaeology, Institute of Nautical (2020-02-23). "Uluburun Late Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation". Institute of Nautical Archaeology. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  13. ^ Institution, Smithsonian. "Egyptian Mummies". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  14. ^ admin. "Heart Scarab". JHU Archaeological Museum. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  15. ^ Carelli, Francesco (2011-07-04). "The book of death: weighing your heart". National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 2024-03-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ^ White, Deborah. "Art in ancient Egypt". The Australian Museum. Retrieved 2024-03-18.
  17. ISBN 978-90-04-67014-3
    , retrieved 2024-03-18
  18. ^ "Scarab seal and modern impression: Osiris flanked by protective deities | Iron Age". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  19. ^ "Scarabs of the Second Intermediate Period". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-04-03.
  20. ^ H. Horn, Siegfried (January 1962). "Scarabs from Schechem".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  21. ^ "Classical-Phoenician-Scarabs". www.carc.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  22. ^ "Scarab seal and modern impression: Osiris flanked by protective deities | Iron Age". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  23. ^ Ben-Tor, Daphna. "Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period". Academia.
  24. ^ Palestine Exploration Quarterly. Published at the Fund's Office. 1948.
  25. ISBN 978-1-108-06609-9
    .
  26. S2CID 127185087
    . Eighty percent of all Anra scarabs were found in Palestine, it would appear that this scarab was marketed specifically by the 15th dynasty for the Palestinian market

Sources

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Egyptian scarabs.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Scarab".
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