Skepticism
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism in British English, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma.[1] For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology.
More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God), or the supernatural.[2] Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely.[3][4]
Philosophical skepticism is one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible" and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated with inner peace.[5]
Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements. Religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence, and revelation.[6] Scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover empirical evidence for them.
Definition and semantic field
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism (from the Greek σκέπτομαι skeptomai, to search, to think about or look for), refers to a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims.[2][7] So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win the championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance.[2] Skepticism about a claim implies that one does not believe the claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as the thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment".[8] It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement.[9] Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So religious and moral skeptics have a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge.[9]
Some definitions, often inspired by ancient philosophy, see skepticism not just as an attitude but as a way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is superior to living in dogmatic certainty, for example because such a skeptic has more happiness and peace of mind or because it is morally better.[2][10] In contemporary philosophy, on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as a thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist.[2]
Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated with
Types
Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject.
Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth".
In various fields
Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such as
Philosophy
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As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India the
In Greece, philosophers as early as Xenophanes (c. 570–c. 475 BCE) expressed skeptical views, as did Democritus[20] and a number of
There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was
Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after
The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. An influential response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650). In his classic work, Meditations of First Philosophy (1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful.[25]: 210
In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it."[22]: 456 As Hume saw it, the real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible.
Hume's skepticism provoked a number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary, Thomas Reid (1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified.[22]: 456 Not long after Hume's death, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that human moral awareness makes no sense unless we reject Hume's skeptical conclusions about the existence of God, the soul, free will, and an afterlife. According to Kant, while Hume was right to claim that we cannot strictly know any of these things, our moral experience entitles us to believe in them.[22]: 457
Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers.[2] British philosopher Julian Baggini posits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly, can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues.[26]
Religion
Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting particular religious beliefs or claims. For example, a religious skeptic might believe that Jesus existed (see historicity of Jesus) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to Xenophanes, who doubted many religious claims of his time, although he recognised that "God is one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind." He maintained that there was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind."[27]
Religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism, though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists.
The historian Will Durant writes that Plato was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". The Baháʼí Faith encourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of truth.[28]
Science
A scientific or
Auditing
Professional skepticism is an important concept in
See also
- The Amaz!ng Meeting– Annual conference for skeptics, 2003–2015
- Critical thinking – Analysis of facts to form a judgment
- Committee for Skeptical Inquiry – Organization examining paranormal claims
- Debunker – Person or group discrediting false claims
- Euroscepticism – Body of criticism of the European Union
- List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
- Pseudoskepticism – Philosophical position that appears to be skeptic but is actually dogmatic
- Scientific skepticism – Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidence
- Skeptic– American science education magazine
- The Skeptic– British magazine
- Skeptical Inquirer – Bimonthly magazine published by CSI
- Skepticality – Skeptical podcast
- Skeptical movement– Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidence
- The Skeptic's Dictionary – 2003 essay collection by Robert Todd Carroll
- Skeptics in the Pub – Informal social event for skeptics since 1999
- The Skeptics Society – American nonprofit organization
- Trivialism – Logical theory
Notes
- ^ Pritchard, Duncan (2006). "Contemporary Skepticism". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009.
Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-518321-4.
- ^ ISSN 0024-3639.
- ^ a b c Sandkühler, Hans Jörg, ed. (2010). "Skepsis/Skeptizismus". Enzyklopädie Philosophie. Meiner.
- ISBN 978-0-521-87476-2.
- ^ "skepticism (noun)". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Popkin, Richard H. "skepticism". Britannica. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
- ^ a b c d Comesaña, Juan; Klein, Peter (2019). "Skepticism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-954143-0.
- S2CID 150356547.
Sources
- Butchvarov, Panayot (1998). Skepticism About the External World. Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 978-3-7675-3056-0.
- Keeton, Morris T. (1962). "skepticism". In Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.). Dictionary of Philosophy. Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, and Company. pp. 277–278.
- Le Morvan, P. (March 2011). "Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom" (PDF). Logos & Episteme. 2 (1). Institute for Economic and Social Research: 87–102. (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2019.
- Clarendon Press.
- Neilson, W.A.; Knott, T.A.; Carhart, P.W., eds. (1950). Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language (Second, Unabridged ed.). Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company.
Further reading
- ISBN 978-0520037472.
- ISBN 978-0674993013.
- Empiricus, Sextus; ISBN 978-0521778091.
- ISBN 978-1473696419.
- ISBN 978-1581347463.
- ISBN 978-0198026716.
- Rosa L; Rosa E; Sarner L; Barrett S (1 April 1998). "A close look at therapeutic touch". JAMA. 279 (13): 1005–1010. PMID 9533499.
- ISBN 978-0891077664.
- Wilson, Richard (2009). Don't Get Fooled Again: A Sceptic's Handbook. Icon. ISBN 978-1848310520.
External links
- Skepticism at PhilPapers
- Skepticism at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
- Klein, Peter. "Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Vogt, Katja. "Ancient Greek Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Thorsrud, Harald. "Ancient Greek Skepticism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Bolyard, Charles. "Medieval Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Pritchard, Duncan. "Contemporary Skepticism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Skeptical Inquiry at Curlie
- Kleiner, Kurt (30 August 2005). "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008.
- "Skeptical Inquirer Magazine Names the Ten Outstanding Skeptics of the Century". Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Amherst, N.Y. Archived from the original on 15 July 2007.