Schools of Islamic theology
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Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding creed. The main schools of Islamic theology include the extant Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools; the extinct ones include the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini schools.
The main schism between Sunni, Shia, and Khariji branches of Islam was initially more political than theological, but theological differences have developed over time throughout the history of Islam.[1]
Divinity schools in Islamic theology
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Including:
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According to the
The original schism between Kharijites, Sunnīs, and Shīʿas among Muslims was a dispute over the political and religious succession to the leadership of the Ummah (Muslim community) after the death of the Muhammad.[1] From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims.[1] Shīʿas believe ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnīs consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War);[1] they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfīr (excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).[1]
.
In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools of Islamic theology to develop were the Muʿtazila in the mid-8th century CE.[3][6] Muʿtazilite theologians emphasized the use of reason and rational thought, positing that the injunctions of God are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the Quran was created (makhlūq) rather than co-eternal with God, which would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology.[3][6]
In the 9th–10th century CE, the
According to the Afghan-American philosopher Sayed Hassan Hussaini, the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among classical Muslim philosophers are characterized by "a rich color of Deism with a slight disposition toward theism".[9]
Another point of contention was the relative position of
Sunnī schools of theology
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Most Sunnis have adopted the Ash‘ariyya school of theology,[11] but the similar Mātūrīd’iyyah school also has Sunni adherents.[12]
The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor to lead the Muslim
Athari
Atharism (
For followers of the Athari movement, the "clear" meaning of the Qur'an, and especially the prophetic traditions, has sole authority in matters of belief, and to engage in rational disputation (kalam), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden.
On the other hand, the famous
ʿIlm al-Kalām
Muʿtazila
Muʿtazila is a school of theology that appeared in early Islāmic history and were known for their neutrality in the dispute between
The later Mu'tazila school developed an Islamic type of rationalism, partly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy, based around three fundamental principles: the oneness (Tawhid) and justice (Al-'adl) of God,[28] human freedom of action, and the creation of the Quran.[29] The Muʿtazilites are best known for rejecting the doctrine of the Quran as uncreated and co-eternal with God,[30] asserting that if the Quran is the word of God, he logically "must have preceded his own speech".[31] This went against the orthodox Sunni position which argued that with God being all knowing, his knowledge of the Quran must have been eternal, hence uncreated just like him.[32] Though Muʿtazilis later relied on logic and different aspects of early Islamic philosophy, ancient Greek philosophy, and Indian philosophy, the basics of Islam is their starting point and ultimate reference.[33][34]
Several groups were later influenced by Muʿtazilite theology, such as the Bishriyya, who followed the teachings of Bishr ibn al-Mu'tamir, and the Bahshamiyya, who followed the teachings of Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i.[35][36]
Ashʿarīyyah
Ashʿarīyyah is a school of theology that was founded by the Arab Muslim scholar, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the 9th–10th century who developed the school of thought founded by Ibn Kullab a century earlier.[37][38][7]
It established an orthodox guideline
Al-Ashʿarī established a middle way between the doctrines of the
Ashʿarism eventually became the predominant school of theological thought within Sunnī Islam,
Mātūrīd’iyyah
The
The Maturidi school takes the middle position between the Ash'ari and Mu'tazili schools on the questions of knowing truth and free will. The Maturidis say that the unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol or murder are evil without the help of revelation, but still maintain that revelation is the ultimate source of knowledge. Additionally, the Maturidi believe that God created and can control all of His creation, but that He allows humans to make individual decisions and choices for themselves.
Ethics are considered to have objective existence. Humans are thus capable of recognizing good and bad without revelation, but reason alone.[58] However, prophets and revelation are necessary to explain matters beyond human reason.[59] In matters of the six articles of faith, Māturīdism notably holds the idea that paradise and hell coexist with the current world, and does not adhere to the doctrine of impeccability of angels.[60][61]
Jahmiyyah
Jahmis were the followers of the Islamic theologian Jahm bin Safwan who associate himself with Al-Harith ibn Surayj. He was an exponent of extreme determinism according to which a man acts only metaphorically in the same way in which the sun acts or does something when it sets.[62]
Qadariyyah
Muhakkima
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The groups that were seceded from
Khawarij
The
The Kharijites thus deemed the arbitrators (
Kharijites reject the doctrine of
Ibadiyya
Murji'ah
Shīʿa schools of theology
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Zaydi-Fivers
The
Bāṭin’iyyah
The
Imami-Ismā'īlīs
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The
Batini-Twelver ʿAqīdah schools
The followers of
Alevism
Alevi Islamic school of divinity
This section may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. The reason given is: Needs to written out in prose. (May 2022) |
In
- The Alevi-Turks have a unique and perplex conviction tracing back to the Kaysanites and Khurramites which are considered as Ghulat Shīʿītes. According to Turkish scholar Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı, the Qizilbash ("Red-Heads") of the 16th century – a religious and political movement in Azerbaijan that helped to establish the Safavid dynasty – were "spiritual descendants of the Khurramites".[82]
- Their ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymun.[77]
- On the other hand, the members of The Twelve Imams.
- In conclusion,
- The
Baktāshism (Bektaşilik)
Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity
The Bektashiyyah is a Shia Sufi order founded in the 13th century by Haji Bektash Veli, a dervish who escaped Central Asia and found refuge with the Seljuks in Anatolia at the time of the Mongol invasions (1219–23). This order gained a great following in rural areas and it later developed in two branches: the Çelebi clan, who claimed to be physical descendants of Haji Bektash Veli, were called "Bel evladları" (children of the loins), and became the hereditary spiritual leaders of the rural Alevis; and the Babağan, those faithful to the path "Yol evladları" (children of the way), who dominated the official Bektashi Sufi order with its elected leadership.[citation needed]
In keeping with the central belief of
The Baktāshi ʿaqīdah
The Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such as the need for an experienced spiritual guide — called a
Bektashis hold that the Qur'an has two levels of meaning: an outer (
Ithnā'ashariyyah
Imami-Ja'faris
Followers of the
Usulism
The Usuli form the overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. They follow a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iraq, and Lebanon.
Akhbarism
Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in Bahrain.
Shaykhism
Shaykhism is an Islamic religious movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in the early 19th century Qajar dynasty, Iran, now retaining a minority following in Iran and Iraq. It began from a combination of Sufi and Shia and Akhbari doctrines. In the mid 19th-century many Shaykhis converted to the Bábí and Baháʼí religions, which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.
Ghulāt-Imamis
‘Alawism
‘Alawite Islamic School of Divinity
Alawites consider themselves to be Muslims, although some Sunnis dispute that they are.
Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.
The ‘Alawite ʿaqīdah
Alawites have always described themselves as being Twelver Shi'ite Muslims and have been recognized as such by the prominent Lebanese Shi'ite cleric
Some sources have discussed the "Sunnification" of
Kızılbaşlık
The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah
The doctrine of
من داها نسنه بيلمه زه م / Men daha nesne bilmezem, (I don't know any other object)
١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
اؤزوم غوربتده سالمازام / Özüm gurbette salmazam, (I can't let out my own essence to places far from my homeland)
١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
اونلار بيردير، بير اولوبدور / Onlar birdir, bir oluştur, (They are unique, a single one, i.e.
Haqq-Muhammad-Ali)يئردن گؤيه نور اولوبدور / Yerden göğe nûr oluştur, (It's a nūr from Earth to Sky)
دؤرد گوشه ده سيرر اولوبدور، / Dört guşede sır oluştur, (It's a mysterious
secretin every corner of the square)١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
ختايى بو يولدا سردير /
secret)سرين وئره نلر ده اردير /
secret are privateas well)آيدا سيردير، گونده نوردور /
)١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)
The lines of poetry above may easily be judged as an act of "
.Tashbih
Karram’iyyah
Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shīʿīsm
The belief of
Ahmadiyya
Part of a series on
Ahmadiyya |
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The
Ahmadi teachings state that the founders of all the major world religions had divine origins. God was working towards the establishment of Islam as the final religion, because it was the most complete and included all the previous teachings of other religion[124] (but they believe that all other religions have gone astray in their present form). The completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the coming of Muhammad; and that the perfection of the ‘manifestation’ of Muhammad's prophethood and of the conveyance of his message was destined to occur with the coming of the Mahdi.[125]
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community are not Muslims[clarification needed] but regard Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ") the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a 'subordinate' prophet to Muhammad whose job was to restore the Sharia given to Muhammad by guiding or rallying disenchanted Ummah back to Islam and thwart attacks on Islam by its opponents, as the "Promised One" of all religions fulfilling eschatological prophecies found in the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions, as well as Zoroastrianism, the Indian religions, Native American traditions and others.[126] Ahmadi Muslims believe that Ahmad was divinely commissioned as a true reflection of Muhammad's prophethood to establish the unity of God and to remind mankind of their duties towards God and God's creation.[127][128]
See also
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Further reading
- Bulğen, Mehmet (December 2019). "al-Māturīdī and Atomism (İmam Mâtüridî ve Atomculuk)" (PDF). ULUM: Journal of Religious Inquiries. 2 (2). from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
- Caspar, Robert (1998). A Historical Introduction to Islamic Theology: Muḥammad and the Classical Period. Studi arabo-islamici del PISAI. Vol. 11. OCLC 42577199.
- Kars, Aydogan (2019). Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam. OCLC 1147875085. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
- from the original on 2022-11-18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
- el-Omari, Racha (2016). The Theology of Abū l-Qāsim al-Balkhī/al-Kaʿbī (d. 319/931). Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science: Texts and Studies. Vol. 99. OCLC 1041077026. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
- Renard, John, ed. (2014). Islamic Theological Themes: A Primary Source Reader. LCCN 2014005897. Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
- Rudolph, Ulrich (2015). Al-Māturīdī and the Development of Sunnī Theology in Samarqand. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 100. Translated by Adem, Rodrigo. from the original on 2022-11-18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
- Sabra, A. I. (January 2009). "The Simple Ontology of Kalām Atomism: An Outline". PMID 19831225.
- al-Salimi, Abdulrahman, ed. (2021). Early Ibadi Theology: New Material on Rational Thought in Islam from the Pen of al-Fazārī (2nd/8th Century). Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 182. from the original on 2022-11-18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
- Thiele, Jan (December 2018). "Recent Scholarship in the Field of kalām". S2CID 159335485.
External links
- The Four Sunni Schools of Thought
- Ask Imam – Islam Q&A
- Online Islamic Learning
- Sufism – Islamic Science of Spirituality (archived 3 December 2001)