Science fiction

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The alien invasion featured in H. G. Wells' 1897 novel The War of the Worlds, as illustrated by Henrique Alvim Corrêa
Space exploration, as predicted in August 1958 by the science fiction magazine Imagination

Science fiction (sometimes shortened to SF or sci-fi) is a

imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. It is related to fantasy, horror, and superhero fiction and contains many subgenres. Its exact definition
has long been disputed among authors, critics, scholars, and readers.

Science fiction, in literature, film, television, and other media, has become popular and influential over much of the world. It has been called the "literature of ideas", and has sometimes been described as an exploration of the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations[1][2] or as an outlet to anticipate future scientific and technological innovations.[3] Besides providing entertainment, it can also criticize present-day society and explore alternatives. It is also often said to inspire a "sense of wonder".[4]

Definitions

According to Isaac Asimov, "Science fiction can be defined as that branch of literature which deals with the reaction of human beings to changes in science and technology."[5] Robert A. Heinlein wrote that "A handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."[6]

American science fiction author and editor Lester del Rey wrote, "Even the devoted aficionado or fan—has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is," and the lack of a "full satisfactory definition" is because "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction."[7]

Another definition of it comes from The Literature Book by DK and is, "scenarios that are at the time of writing technologically impossible, extrapolating from present-day science...[,]...or that deal with some form of speculative science-based conceit, such as a society (on Earth or another planet) that has developed in wholly different ways from our own."[8]

Part of the reason that it is so difficult to pin down an agreed definition of science fiction is because there is a tendency among science fiction enthusiasts to act as their own arbiter in deciding what exactly constitutes science fiction.[9] Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying "Science fiction is what we point to when we say it."[10] David Seed says it may be more useful to talk about science fiction as the intersection of other, more concrete, genres and subgenres.[11]

Alternative terms

Robert Heinlein found even "science fiction" insufficient for certain types of works in this genre, and suggested the term speculative fiction to be used instead for those that are more "serious" or "thoughtful".[19]

History

H. G. Wells

Some scholars assert that science fiction had its beginnings in

artificial life. Some consider it the first science fiction novel.[21] Some of the stories from The Arabian Nights,[22][23] along with the 10th-century The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter[23] and Ibn al-Nafis's 13th-century Theologus Autodidactus,[24]
are also argued to contain elements of science fiction.

Somnium by Johannes Kepler

Written during the

science-fantasy works.[31] Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Somnium the first science fiction story; it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earth's motion is seen from there.[32][33] Kepler has been called the "father of science fiction."[34][35]

Following the 17th-century development of the

Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau introduced the first time machine.[44][45] An early French/Belgian science fiction writer was J.-H. Rosny aîné (1856–1940). Rosny's masterpiece is Les Navigateurs de l'Infini (The Navigators of Infinity) (1925) in which the word astronaut, "astronautique", was used for the first time.[46][47]

Many critics consider H. G. Wells one of science fiction's most important authors,

YA novels, and drew inspiration from European science fiction and American Western novels.[52]

In 1924, We by Russian writer Yevgeny Zamyatin, one of the first dystopian novels, was published.[53] It describes a world of harmony and conformity within a united totalitarian state. It influenced the emergence of dystopia as a literary genre.[54]

In 1926, Hugo Gernsback published the first American science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories. In its first issue he wrote:

By 'scientifiction' I mean the Jules Verne, H. G. Wells and Edgar Allan Poe type of story—a charming romance intermingled with scientific fact and prophetic vision... Not only do these amazing tales make tremendously interesting reading—they are always instructive. They supply knowledge... in a very palatable form... New adventures pictured for us in the scientifiction of today are not at all impossible of realization tomorrow... Many great science stories destined to be of historical interest are still to be written... Posterity will point to them as having blazed a new trail, not only in literature and fiction, but progress as well.[55][56][57]

In 1928,

Armageddon 2419, also appeared in Amazing Stories. This was followed by a Buck Rogers comic strip, the first serious science fiction comic.[59]

In 1937,

psychohistory.[62][63] The series was later awarded a one-time Hugo Award for "Best All-Time Series".[64][65] The "Golden Age" is often said to have ended in 1946, but sometimes the late 1940s and the 1950s are included.[66]

powered armor exoskeletons.[75][76][77] The German space opera series Perry Rhodan, written by various authors, started in 1961 with an account of the first Moon landing[78] and has since expanded in space to multiple universes, and in time by billions of years.[79] It has become the most popular science fiction book series of all time.[80]

In the 1960s and 1970s,

theme of human limitations as its characters attempted to study a seemingly intelligent ocean on a newly discovered planet.[84][85] 1965's Dune by Frank Herbert featured a much more complex and detailed imagined future society than had previous science fiction.[86]

In 1967

movie franchise.[89][90] 1969's The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin was set on a planet in which the inhabitants have no fixed gender. It is one of the most influential examples of social science fiction, feminist science fiction, and anthropological science fiction.[91][92][93]

In 1979,

In 2007, Liu Cixin's novel, The Three-Body Problem, was published in China. It was translated into English by Ken Liu and published by Tor Books in 2014,[102] and won the 2015 Hugo Award for Best Novel,[103] making Liu the first Asian writer to win the award.[104]

Emerging themes in late 20th and early 21st century science fiction include

Film

The Maschinenmensch from Metropolis

The first, or at least one of the first, recorded science fiction

filmmaker Georges Méliès.[112] It was profoundly influential on later filmmakers, bringing a different kind of creativity and fantasy to the cinematic medium.[113][114] In addition, Méliès's innovative editing and special effects techniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium.[115][116]

1927's

major city or engaging other monsters in battle.[122][123]

1968's

B-movie offerings up to that time both in scope and quality, and greatly influenced later science fiction films.[124][125][126][127] That same year, Planet of the Apes (the original), directed by Franklin J. Schaffner and based on the 1963 French novel La Planète des Singes by Pierre Boulle, was released to popular and critical acclaim, due in large part to its vivid depiction of a post-apocalyptic world in which intelligent apes dominate humans.[128]

In 1977,

Since the 1980s,

Sky Racket – 1937), Western (Serenity – 2005), comedy (Spaceballs −1987, Galaxy Quest – 1999), war (Enemy Mine – 1985), action (Edge of Tomorrow – 2014, The Matrix – 1999), adventure (Jupiter Ascending – 2015, Interstellar – 2014), sports (Rollerball – 1975), mystery (Minority Report – 2002), thriller (Ex Machina – 2014), horror (Alien – 1979), film noir (Blade Runner – 1982), superhero (Marvel Cinematic Universe – 2008–), drama (Melancholia – 2011, Predestination – 2014), and romance (Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind – 2004, Her – 2013).[135]

Television

Don Hastings (left) and Al Hodge in Captain Video and His Video Rangers

Science fiction and television have consistently been in a close relationship. Television or television-like technologies frequently appeared in science fiction long before television itself became widely available in the late 1940s and early 1950s.[136]

The first known science fiction television program was a thirty-five-minute

Czech playwright Karel Čapek, broadcast live from the BBC's Alexandra Palace studios on 11 February 1938.[137] The first popular science fiction program on American television was the children's adventure serial Captain Video and His Video Rangers, which ran from June 1949 to April 1955.[138]

The

tanning beds, home treadmills, and more.[143] In 1963, the time travel-themed Doctor Who premiered on BBC Television.[144] The original series ran until 1989 and was revived in 2005.[145] It has been extremely popular worldwide and has greatly influenced later TV science fiction.[146][147][148] Other programs in the 1960s included The Outer Limits (1963–1965),[149] Lost in Space (1965–1968), and The Prisoner (1967).[150][151][152]

franchise with many films, television shows, novels, and other works and products.[155][156][157][158] Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994) led to six additional live action Star Trek shows (Deep Space 9 (1993–1999), Voyager (1995–2001), Enterprise (2001–2005), Discovery (2017–present), Picard (2020–2023), and Strange New Worlds (2022–present), with more in some form of development.[159][160][161][162]

The

conspiracy theories, was created by Chris Carter and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company from 1993 to 2002,[166][167] and again from 2016 to 2018.[168][169] Stargate, a film about ancient astronauts and interstellar teleportation, was released in 1994. Stargate SG-1 premiered in 1997 and ran for 10 seasons (1997–2007). Spin-off series included Stargate Infinity (2002–2003), Stargate Atlantis (2004–2009), and Stargate Universe (2009–2011).[170] Other 1990s series included Quantum Leap (1989–1993) and Babylon 5 (1994–1999).[171]

The space-Western series

Serenity, a "Firefly-class" spaceship.[175] Orphan Black began its five-season run in 2013, about a woman who assumes the identity of one of her several genetically identical human clones. In late 2015 SyFy premiered The Expanse to great critical acclaim, an American TV series about humanity's colonization of the Solar System. Its later seasons would then be aired through Amazon Prime Video
.

Social influence

Science fiction's rapid rise in popularity during the first half of the 20th century was closely tied to the popular respect paid to science at that time, as well as the rapid pace of

progress.[177][178] Some works predict that new inventions and progress will tend to improve life and society, for instance the stories of Arthur C. Clarke and Star Trek.[179] Others, such as H.G. Wells's The Time Machine and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, warn about possible negative consequences.[180][181]

In 2001 the

space program and the idea of contacting extraterrestrial civilizations.[182][183] Carl Sagan wrote: "Many scientists deeply involved in the exploration of the solar system (myself among them) were first turned in that direction by science fiction."[184]

Science fiction tries to blend fiction and reality seamlessly so that the viewer can be immersed in the imaginative world. This includes characters, settings, and tools and perhaps most critically, the scientific plausibility and accuracy of technology and technological concepts. Sometimes, science fiction forecasts real-life innovations and discoveries. Science fiction

robots,[186] and borazon.[187] In the 2020 series Away astronauts use a real-life Mars rover called InSight to listen intently for a landing on Mars. Two years later in 2022 scientists used InSight to listen for the landing of a real spacecraft.[188]
In the Jurassic Park franchise, dinosaurs are created from ancient DNA and 18 years later, real life scientists found dinosaur DNA in ancient fossils.

visual media, interactive media and on to whatever new media the world will invent in the 21st century. Crossover issues between the sciences and the humanities are crucial for the century to come."[191]

As protest literature

"Happy 1984" in Spanish or Portuguese, referencing George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, on a standing piece of the Berlin Wall (sometime after 1998)

Science fiction has sometimes been used as a means of

dystopian science fiction.[192][193] It is often invoked in protests against governments and leaders who are seen as totalitarian.[194][195] James Cameron's 2009 film Avatar was intended as a protest against imperialism, and specifically the European colonization of the Americas.[196]

computers, and their possible conflicts with human society have all been major themes of science fiction since, at least, the publication of Shelly's Frankenstein. Some critics have seen this as reflecting authors' concerns over the social alienation seen in modern society.[197]

Feminist science fiction poses questions about social issues such as how society constructs gender roles, the role reproduction plays in defining gender, and the inequitable political or personal power of one gender over others. Some works have illustrated these themes using utopias to explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist, or dystopias to explore worlds in which gender inequalities are intensified, thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue.[198][199]

environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi,[202] and it is often discussed by other media outside of science fiction fandom.[203]

right libertarian philosophies with an emphasis on individualism and private property, and in some cases anti-statism.[204]

Science fiction comedy often satirizes and criticizes present-day society, and sometimes makes fun of the conventions and clichés of more serious science fiction.[205][206]

The potential for Science Fiction as a genre is not just limited to being a literary sandbox for exploring otherworldly narratives but can act as a vehicle to analyze and recognize a society's past, present, and potential future social relationships with the Other. More specifically, Science Fiction offers a medium and representation of Alterity and differences in social identity.[207]

Sense of wonder

1894 illustration by Aubrey Beardsley for Lucian's A True Story

Science fiction is often said to inspire a "

David Hartwell wrote: "Science fiction's appeal lies in combination of the rational, the believable, with the miraculous. It is an appeal to the sense of wonder."[208] Carl Sagan said:

One of the great benefits of science fiction is that it can convey bits and pieces, hints, and phrases, of knowledge unknown or inaccessible to the reader . . . works you ponder over as the water is running out of the bathtub or as you walk through the woods in an early winter snowfall.[184]

In 1967, Isaac Asimov commented on the changes then occurring in the science fiction community:

And because today's real life so resembles day-before-yesterday's fantasy, the old-time fans are restless. Deep within, whether they admit it or not, is a feeling of disappointment and even outrage that the outer world has invaded their private domain. They feel the loss of a 'sense of wonder' because what was once truly confined to 'wonder' has now become prosaic and mundane.[209]

Science fiction studies

The study of science fiction, or

TV shows, new media, fandom, and fan fiction.[210] Science fiction scholars study science fiction to better understand it and its relationship to science, technology, politics, other genres, and culture-at-large.[211] Science fiction studies began around the turn of the 20th century, but it was not until later that science fiction studies solidified as a discipline with the publication of the academic journals Extrapolation (1959), Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction (1972), and Science Fiction Studies (1973),[212][213] and the establishment of the oldest organizations devoted to the study of science fiction in 1970, the Science Fiction Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation.[214][215] The field has grown considerably since the 1970s with the establishment of more journals, organizations, and conferences, as well as science fiction degree-granting programs such as those offered by the University of Liverpool.[216]

Classification

Science fiction has historically been sub-divided between hard science fiction and soft science fiction, with the division centering on the feasibility of the science central to the story.[217] However, this distinction has come under increasing scrutiny in the 21st century. Some authors, such as Tade Thompson and Jeff VanderMeer, have pointed out that stories that focus explicitly on physics, astronomy, mathematics, and engineering tend to be considered "hard" science fiction, while stories that focus on botany, mycology, zoology, and the social sciences tend to be categorized as "soft", regardless of the relative rigor of the science.[218]

Max Gladstone defined "hard" science fiction as stories "where the math works", but pointed out that this ends up with stories that often seem "weirdly dated", as scientific paradigms shift over time.[219] Michael Swanwick dismissed the traditional definition of "hard" SF altogether, instead saying that it was defined by characters striving to solve problems "in the right way–with determination, a touch of stoicism, and the consciousness that the universe is not on his or her side."[218]

Ursula K. Le Guin also criticized the more traditional view on the difference between "hard" and "soft" SF: "The 'hard' science fiction writers dismiss everything except, well, physics, astronomy, and maybe chemistry. Biology, sociology, anthropology—that's not science to them, that's soft stuff. They're not that interested in what human beings do, really. But I am. I draw on the social sciences a great deal."[220]

Literary merit

Engraving showing a naked man awaking on the floor and another man fleeing in horror. A skull and a book are next to the naked man and a window, with the moon shining through it, is in the background
Illustration by Theodor von Holst for 1831 edition of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein[221]

Many critics remain skeptical of the

Nobel Prize in literature, wrote a series of five SF novels, Canopus in Argos: Archives (1979–1983), which depict the efforts of more advanced species and civilizations to influence those less advanced, including humans on Earth.[229][230][231][232]

David Barnett has pointed out that there are books such as The Road (2006) by Cormac McCarthy, Cloud Atlas (2004) by David Mitchell, The Gone-Away World (2008) by Nick Harkaway, The Stone Gods (2007) by Jeanette Winterson, and Oryx and Crake (2003) by Margaret Atwood, which use recognizable science fiction tropes, but which are not classified by their authors and publishers as science fiction.[233] Atwood in particular argued against the categorization of works like the Handmaid's Tale as science fiction, labeling it, Oryx, and the Testaments as speculative fiction[234] and deriding science fiction as "talking squids in outer space."[235] In his book "The Western Canon", literary critic Harold Bloom includes Brave New World, Stanisław Lem's Solaris, Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle, and The Left Hand of Darkness as culturally and aesthetically significant works of western literature, though Lem actively spurned the Western label of "science fiction"[236] while Vonnegut was more commonly classified as a postmodernist or satirist.

In her 1976 essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown", Ursula K. Le Guin was asked: "Can a science fiction writer write a novel?" She answered: "I believe that all novels ... deal with character... The great novelists have brought us to see whatever they wish us to see through some character. Otherwise, they would not be novelists, but poets, historians, or pamphleteers."[237] Orson Scott Card, best known for his 1985 science fiction novel Ender's Game, has postulated that in science fiction the message and intellectual significance of the work are contained within the story itself and, therefore, does not require accepted literary devices and techniques he instead characterized as gimmicks or literary games.[238][239]

Village Voice entitled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction", suggested that the point in 1973 when Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow was nominated for the Nebula Award and was passed over in favor of Clarke's Rendezvous with Rama, stands as "a hidden tombstone marking the death of the hope that SF was about to merge with the mainstream."[240] In the same year science fiction author and physicist Gregory Benford wrote: "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the twentieth century, although its conquering armies are still camped outside the Rome of the literary citadels."[241]

Community

Authors

Science fiction is being written, and has been written, by

A controversy about voting slates in the 2015 Hugo Awards highlighted tensions in the science fiction community between a trend of increasingly diverse works and authors being honored by awards, and reaction by groups of authors and fans who preferred what they considered more "traditional" science fiction.[243]

Awards

Among the most significant and well-known awards for science fiction are the

There are other national awards, like Canada's

Chesley Award for art, presented by the Association of Science Fiction & Fantasy Artists,[251] or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy.[252] Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.[253]

Conventions

Writer Pamela Dean reading at the Minneapolis convention known as Minicon in 2006

non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters.[258]

Fandom and fanzines

science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area.[260]

The earliest organized online

World-Wide Web exploded the community of online fandom by orders of magnitude, with thousands and then millions of websites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media.[263]

The first

Ansible, edited by David Langford, winner of numerous Hugo awards.[266][267] Other notable fanzines to win one or more Hugo awards include File 770, Mimosa, and Plokta.[268] Artists working for fanzines have frequently risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists.[268]

Elements

Plaque at Riverside, Iowa, to honor the "future birth" of Star Trek's James T. Kirk

Science fiction elements can include, among others:

International examples

Subgenres

Related genres

See also

References

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