Science and technology in China
Science and technology in China have developed rapidly during the 1980s to 2020s, and major scientific and technological achievements have been made since the 1980s.[1][2] From the 1980s to the 1990s, the Chinese government successively launched the "863 Plan" and the "Strategy for Rejuvenating the Country through Science and Education", which greatly promoted the development and progress of China's science and technology.[1][3] The Chinese government has placed emphasis through funding, reform, and societal status on science and technology as a fundamental part of the socio-economic development of the country as well as for national prestige.
21st-century China has made tremendous strides in the proliferation of modern scientific and technological education, academic publishing, in addition to numerous scientific and technological domains such infrastructure engineering, high-technology and industrial manufacturing, and patents to pioneer new and cutting-edge goods and services and industries through commercial applications to rival the standards of science and technology set by the Western world. Contemporary China is now increasingly harnessing the reservoir of targeting indigenous innovation and aims to reform remaining weaknesses. As per the Global Innovation Index in 2022, China was considered one of the most competitive in the world, ranking 11th in the world, 3rd in the Asia & Oceania region and 2nd for countries with a population of over 100 million.[4]
History
Part of a series on the |
History of science and technology in China |
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China was a global scientific and technological leader up until the early years of the
After being defeated repeatedly by
After Mao Zedong's death, S&T was established as one of the Four Modernizations in 1976. The new leader Deng Xiaoping, and architect of the Chinese economic reform, was a strong promoter of S&T and reversed the policies of the Cultural revolution. The Soviet inspired system was then gradually reformed. Media began promoting the value of S&T, scientific thinking, and scientific achievement.[12] The third and fourth generations of leaders came almost exclusively from technical backgrounds.
In March 1986, China launched the large-scale technology development plan, the 863 Project.[16]: 88
The
During the last 30 years China concentrated on building physical infrastructure such as roads and ports. One policy during the last decade has been to ask for technology transfer in order for foreign companies to gain access to the Chinese market. China is now increasingly targeting indigenous innovation.[18] During this period China has succeeded in developing an innovation infrastructure, founded on the establishment of over 100 science and technology parks in many parts of the country, along with encouragement of entrepreneurship outside the state-owned sector. Yip and McKern argue that Chinese firms have evolved through three phases as their innovation capabilities have matured and that by 2017 many of them are of world standard. They are now strong competitors in the China market and increasingly in foreign markets, where they are establishing local operations.[19]
Techno-nationalism
While the term "techno-nationalism" was originally applied to the United States in the 1980s, it has since been used to describe nationalistic technology policies in many countries, particularly in Asia.[20] Chinese techno-nationalism is rooted in the country's humiliation at the hands of more advanced countries in the 19th century. Indeed, China's leaders (like those of other countries) have long seen scientific and technological development as vital for achieving economic affluence, national security, and national prestige. Lacking indigenous technological intellectual property and innovation are seen as key national problems. The 21st century has thus seen a series of central government initiatives designed to promote "indigenous innovation" and technological development more generally in China. These include the National Medium- and Long-Term Program for Science and Technology Development (2006–20), the Strategic Emerging Industries initiative, the Internet Plus initiative, and the Made in China 2025 Program, among others.
Through these initiatives, the Chinese state has intervened in the economy in a variety of ways to promote national technological development and reduce reliance on other countries. Prioritized industries and firms are protected and guided. There are systematic efforts to replace foreign technology and intellectual properties with indigenous technology. Foreign companies are given many incentives for technology transfer and for moving R&D to China. At the same time the technological abilities of domestic companies are supported in various ways. Such policies have generated considerable conflict between China and developed countries, particularly the United States, although China has often proven flexible when its policies have been challenged.[21]
Nationalism and nationalistic achievements have been seen as becoming the main ideological justifications and societal glue for the regime as Marxism loses influence. Some science and technology mega-projects has been seen as questionable trophy projects done for propaganda purposes with Chinese state-controlled media being filled with reports of Chinese achievements.[22][23] In 2019, reports surfaced stating that the Chinese government has ordered all foreign PC hardware and operating systems that are installed in government offices to be replaced in the next three years.[24][25][26][27][28] Other reports stated that the Chinese government would be increasing subsidies for tech firms.[29]
Gross domestic expenditure on research and development
In its Medium and Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006–2020), China fixed itself the target of devoting 2.5% of GDP to research and development by 2020. Between 2003 and 2012, gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) rose from 1.13% to 1.98% of GDP, suggesting that the country was on track to meet its target.[30]
The research firm Battelle estimates that China's GERD will exceed that of the United States by 2023.[31] However, several convergent factors cast doubt over the accuracy of Battelle's prediction: the deceleration in China's rate of economic growth in 2014, the considerable drop in industrial production since 2012 and the major stock market slide in mid-2015. After progressing rapidly for a decade, GERD stabilized at 2.07% of GDP in 2015.[32]
China devoted 5.1% of total research spending to basic research in 2015, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. This is up from 4.8%, on average, over the past decade, but less than in 2004 (6.0%). The prolonged policy focus on experimental development has resulted in enterprises contributing three-quarters of Chinese research spending (77% of total expenditure on R&D in 2015). Enterprises focus on experimental development, which accounted for as much as 97% of their total research expenditure by 2015.[32] Business enterprises contributed 60% of GERD in 2000 and 74% in 2008. In 2004, 74% of GERD went on experimental development.[33] China aims to increase the share of basic research to 15% of total research spending by 2020.[18][30]
Institutions
The State Council of the People's Republic of China is the top administrative organ in China. Immediately below it are several ministries and ministry level organisations involved with various aspects of science and technology.[34] The State Council Science and Education Leading Group, consisting of the leaders of the major science bodies, attempts to organize the national policy. Efficiency of overall coordination has been questioned with various agencies seen as having overlapping missions and rivalries for resources and sometimes engaging in wasteful duplication.[35]
The
The National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Sciences directs planning for social sciences and philosophy.
The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is the most prestigious professional science organization in China with China's scientific elite being members. It directs many research institutes, research programs, graduate training programs, and gives influential advice. The Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) gives important advice but unlike the CAS does not have research institutes of its own.[34] The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) has a similar role to CAS for social sciences and philosophy. There are also many more narrow academies such as the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences.
The
The People's Liberation Army General Armaments Department directs military R&D.
The national scientific and academic organizations affiliated to the China Association for Science and Technology are also important forces in scientific and technological research.
The Society of Chinese Scientific Journalism presides over the Society of Chinese Technical Communication, China's first government approved technical communication association. Since 2002, the group has held annual conferences.[36]
Research is carried out by governmental research institutes, in higher learning institutions, and by private enterprises.[35]
Local governments have become increasingly important in R&D funding and may now contribute up to half of government spending. Intense rivalry for research and high-tech industry has been argued to sometimes create wasteful subsidized overcapacity, dispersal of efforts better centralized in a few localities, and poorly judged bureaucratic subsidizing of technologies that soon become out-dated.[35][37]
National programmes
As of 2010, China's national R&D programmes encompassed the:[35]
- Key Technologies Program (renamed in 2006 as "zhicheng" or Support)
- National High Technology Program (863 Program)
- National Basic Research Program (973 Program)
- Spark Program - Rural technology
- Torch Program - New technology commercialization by creating special hi-tech zones and incubators
- Key Laboratories Program
- Engineering Research Centers
- State Key and New Product Program
- Innovation Fund for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
- Special Technology Development Project for Research Institutes
- Action Plan for Promoting Trade by Science and Technology
- National New Products Program
- Agricultural S&T Transfer Fund
The major national programs received 15-20% of government R&D spending in 2010. They funded research, after a stated competitive proposal procedure, in universities, institutes, and enterprise. Important project may receive funding from several programs. The programs have arguably had a strong effect but have also been involved in scandals, corruption and fraud. They have been accused mainly of producing derivative works rather than driving innovation and it has been claimed that they ignore merit in selecting projects in favor of cronyism. China is trying to improve their efficiency through measures such as more peer-review and evaluations.[35]
Economic and Technological Development Zones
Based on the success of the
Education and R&D personnel
Rank | Mathematics | Sciences | Reading | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Shanghai, China | 600 | Shanghai, China | 575 | Shanghai, China | 556 |
2. | Singapore | 562 | Finland | 554 | South Korea | 539 |
3. | Hong Kong, China | 555 | Hong Kong, China | 549 | Finland | 536 |
4. | South Korea | 546 | Singapore | 542 | Hong Kong, China | 533 |
5. | Taiwan | 543 | Japan | 539 | Singapore | 526 |
6. | Finland | 541 | South Korea | 538 | Canada | 524 |
7. | Liechtenstein | 536 | New Zealand | 532 | New Zealand | 521 |
8. | Switzerland | 534 | Canada | 529 | Japan | 520 |
9. | Japan | 529 | Estonia | 528 | Australia | 515 |
10. | Canada | 527 | Australia | 527 | Netherlands | 508 |
In the first participation of Chinese student in an international student assessment test, the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment, 15-year-old students from Shanghai ranked first in all of the three categories: mathematics, science, and reading. The Chinese students scored particularly well compared to other nations in mathematics. One explanation for the Chinese results may be a culture emphasizing education and competitive examinations and more time spent studying in part due to less participation in activities such as sports. Teaching have become a higher status occupation. Also, industrialized Shanghai which has done important educational reforms may not be representative for the rest of China. While there was no evidence of cheating or technical problems with the testing, Shanghai which attracts many immigrants from the rest of China may have allowed particularly good students to study in the city. The OECD director of the testing, Andreas Schleicher, said that the results were expected to produce astonishment and had been examined for accuracy by international experts after the OECD received the Shanghai scores. He also said that the results "refute the commonly held hypothesis that China just produces rote learning" and "Large fractions of these students demonstrate their ability to extrapolate from what they know and apply their knowledge very creatively in novel situations".[40] He believes that China has moved away from learning by rote.[41] According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote-based and broader assessments.[42] In 2018 four major regions (Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang) in China topped the rankings in reading, mathematics and science[43] and China's school children are now the smartest in the world.[44] Chinese high school students won multiple gold medals every year consistently at many International Science Olympiad Competitions like the International Biology Olympiad,[45] the International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics,[46] the International Olympiad in Informatics,[47] the International Earth Science Olympiad,[48] the International Mathematical Olympiad,[49] the International Physics Olympiad[50] and the International Chemistry Olympiad.[51]
China's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years(2014-2023):
China has become one of the world's biggest sources for research and development personnel. Between 2000 and 2008, the number of engineers and scientists more than doubled to 1.59 million. Relative to population size this is still low compared to major developed nations like the United States and Japan but the gap is rapidly closing.
The C9 League, pitched as China's Ivy League, is an alliance of nine elite Chinese universities which receive a high amount of national research funding and produce a large share of national research output.
Chinese universities contribute an unusually large share of patents. The universities receive about half of R&D money from private enterprises.[18]
Eight out of nine members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) have engineering degrees, including CCP general secretary Hu Jintao.[18]
2.25 million students have studied abroad since 1978. 340,000 were studying abroad in 2011 which was an increase by 20% over the previous year. In total 818,400 have returned to China with this occurring in particular in recent years. 186,200 returned to China in 2011 which was an increase by 38% over the previous year. China offers several benefits for high-achieving foreign educated Chinese who return to China. Students are now also returning because increased job opportunities unlike previously when many stayed abroad due lack of jobs in China.[54] A 2009 study found that only 10% of Chinese students plan to stay in the United States due to visa restrictions, fear of lack of job opportunities, and belief that US growth will lag behind average world growth rates. 52% believed that the best job opportunities were in China which was in marked contrast with earlier surveys. 74% felt that the best days of China's economy was coming. 68% intended to start businesses.[55] When they return, foreign educated students often provide crucial science and technology knowledge, management skills, and innovation abilities for scientific research and industry. The senior management in high-tech companies are often foreign educated.[56]
Chinese diaspora
Overseas Chinese, as is the case for other diasporas and their homelands, have contributed significantly to China's development. They have been seen as an important channel for bringing trade, investment, and modern technology to China by both commercial activities and public non-profit cooperation.[57] By using 'Brain Gain' to attract highly educated overseas Chinese to return to China to work, China has made significant improvements in its innovation ecosystem although there are some limitations to how sustainable this technique may be.
Industrial espionage
One of the objectives of Chinese intelligence activity abroad is alleged to be industrial espionage as well gaining military technology. Also private companies have been accused of espionage. Intelligence agencies suspect that thousands of Western companies may have been affected by data breaches that can be traced back to China.[58]
International cooperation
The China Internet Information Center stated in a 2005 article that China had inter-governmental cooperative S&T agreements with 96 nations, cooperative S&T programs with 152 nations and regions, and participated in more than 1,000 international S&T cooperative organizations. NGO international exchanges and cooperative activities had increased. The China Association for Science and Technology and related organizations as well as the National Natural Science Foundation of China participated in many cooperative international organizations. Chinese researchers held 281 leading posts on international organizations' expert committees and held 293 executive member-director or higher level positions.[59]
Technology transfer and R&D by multinational corporations
In the early 1980s foreign companies began transferring technology by licensing agreements and sales of equipment. Later in the 1980s many multinational corporations started transferring technology by entering into joint ventures with Chinese companies in order to expand in China. China in the 1990s introduced increasingly sophisticated regulations of foreign investment by which access to the Chinese market was traded for technology transfer. The entry of China into the World Trade Organization in 2001 required this practice stop but critics argue that it continues. Chinese critics have argued such technology transfer may be useful for catching up but does not create new, cutting-edge technologies.[35]
China has increasingly encouraged multinational corporations to create R&D centers in China. Chinese critics have argued that foreign owned R&D mainly benefits foreign companies and removes many talented Chinese researchers from indigenous companies and institutions. Chinese supporters have argued that the foreign R&D serves as a role model and encouragement for indigenous companies and creates skilled communities from which labor and knowledge can easily flow to indigenous companies. In 2010 there were 1,200 such R&D centers and 400 out the Fortune 500 corporations had created such R&D centers. Corporations have argued that this is a necessity in order to adapt products for the local requirements of the Chinese market as well as it being essential for maintaining global competitiveness to make use the many available Chinese engineers and scientists. China is now ranked first when multinational corporations are asked in which nation future R&D centers are most likely to be located.[35]
Innovation
A 2005 report found serious shortcomings to China's national innovation system. There were problems with services to help turn S&T work into results and the allocation of national funding to support S&T was far from optimal. Sometimes researchers became short-sighted if they get too close to the market. Another serious problem was that companies facing severe competition looked first to purchase foreign technology rather than investing in developing technology and technology development capacity at home in China. Many of the patent applications came from medium-sized enterprises (70%) since small enterprises invest little in research.[60] China's hierarchical, top-down society where authority is greatly respected and feared has been argued to stifle creative debate.[61]
China in a 2006 report outlined policies for improving innovation. They include 20 large megaprojects in areas such as nanotechnology, high-end generic microchips, aircraft, biotechnology, and new drugs. This is combined with a more bottom-up approach on a Silicon Valley model consisting of small start-ups, venture capital, and cooperation between industry and universities.[62]
It has also been argued that China is the world leader in making small, innovative improvements to existing designs. One example is continual improvements to the design of
A 2016 NBER paper found that the Chinese economy is becoming increasingly innovative.[65] The study found that rising labor costs in China and "expanded market opportunities in the world economy" were the main drivers behind innovations.[65] The study also found that state-owned firms innovated less than private firms, even though state-owned firms received far greater subsidies.[65]
In 2020, China's spending on research and development climbed 10.3% to a record 2.44 trillion Chinese yuan ($378 billion) according to the nation's National Bureau of Statistics.[66]
A 2023 Australian Strategic Policy Institute study of what it deemed as 44 critical technologies concluded that China leads the world in 37 of them, including 5G internet, electric batteries, and hypersonic missiles.[67]: 155
Per the
Procurement
The central Chinese government, a large buyer of high-tech products, in 2009 proposed controversial policies demanding that companies selling to it promote Chinese innovation and that the products sold are free of foreign intellectual property.[62] The most controversial parts were later withdrawn but local Chinese governments continue to use procurement to encourage indigenous innovation.[35]
Intellectual property
China's legal framework for intellectual property (IP) protection is developing rapidly as China becomes a source of innovation, but its IP framework is still less developed than most industrialized nations as of 2023.[72]: 2 The general trend of its IP system has been to develop towards increasing similarity with the E.U. and U.S. systems.[73]: 267
Patents
In 2011, China became the nation with the greatest number of filed
According to the recent data from the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China's patent office received 1.54 million patent applications in 2018, representing nearly half of patent applications worldwide—more than double the U.S.[75][76][unreliable source?] In 2019, China surpassed the U.S. as the top source of international patent applications filed with WIPO.[citation needed] China-based applicants filed for 58,990 patent applications; 57,840 applications were filed by American applicants.[77]
In addition, although China is catching up fast, it still trails the U.S. and Japan for the number of patents made oversea.[
Standards
To encourage innovation and avoid foreign intellectual property China has been developing indigenous
Academic publishing
The
An analysis of
A 2009 study of Chinese social science studies in the
Articles published in China related to basic medial science and clinical research and indexed by
There are 8,000 journals and 4,600 in scientific fields. Almost all Chinese science organisations publish their own journal. The government owns or supports most journals with only a small number being privately owned. The "publish or perish" system has been argued to contribute to many low quality journals and articles that are infrequently cited and also to plagiarism and fraud. The Chinese government has put into place stricter regulations, punished or terminated some journals, and aims increase quality control and peer evaluation of journals as well as to create five to ten large publishing groups.[87] As part of the reforms, in 2012 the China Association for Science and Technology, which oversees 1,050 journals, in a declaration listed various forms of misconduct, plagiarism, and fraud and as well, the penalties for perpetrating them such as written warnings, blacklisting, contacting the researcher's home institution or funding agencies, or public disclosure. It has also been seen as important by increasing pressure on other journals and by informing editors who may not know that some actions such as favoring researchers based on personal relations are unacceptable. China also plans to give substantial financial incentives to top journals based on factors such as their Chinese and international impact factor. It has been questioned if this will have an effect on the many poor quality journals who in return for money help researchers fill their institutional requirements for published papers.[88]
State-owned enterprises
Chinese state-owned enterprises are owned by a variety of actors such as local governments and governmental agencies. They may benefit from advantages not available for smaller, more innovative firms which have been seen as problematic. In 2010 state owned enterprises won many biddings for renewable energy projects since they did not have worry about paying off investments for several decades and could ignore risks and costs. The owners may attempt to protect their enterprises from competition by regulations or otherwise use their influence in an unfair manner which may stifle more innovative, private competitors. Private enterprises surpassed stated owned enterprises during the 2002-2007 period regarding rapidity of increase of research spending, patent applications, and R&D laboratories. The number of research scientists and engineers increased rapidly in private enterprises while they declined in state owned enterprises.[35]
Corruption
Concerned about corruption in Chinese science,[89] some Chinese scientists, including Professor Liu Ming (刘明) of Zhejiang University in his 2005 book Critique of the Academic Evaluation System (学术评价制度批判), argue that interference from government officials and university bureaucrats makes peer review far less effective in China than it could be. The time scientists spend cultivating politically influential people is lost to scientific research. Liu argues that the command economy mentality of measuring everything by the numbers combined with pervasive political interference results in a great waste of money, human talent as well as considerable corruption in Chinese science.[90] A 2008 investigation into a certification for high-tech enterprises allowing large tax breaks and other advantages found that more than 70% of the enterprises had gained this under questionable circumstances and an investigation of a sample found that 73% did not pass the requirements.[35]
Awards
The
Specific areas of R&D
The 13th Five-Year Plan for the National Economy and Social Development (2016–2020) will initiate the key Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 Project in the following key areas: aero-engines and gas turbines; a deep sea station; quantum communication and quantum computers; brain sciences and brain research. The project also encompasses nine other sub-projects, including an innovative seed industry, smart grid, space-terrestrial information network, intelligent manufacturing and robots.[91]
Agriculture
There is a lack of arable land and water which means only new technology can increase the output of Chinese agriculture. Chinese Communist Party former general secretary Jiang Zemin has therefore called for a "new revolution in agricultural science and technology."[92] Restrictions and regulations concerning genetically modified foods have been introduced or proposed after widespread public concern.[93] China has been buying millions of foreign breeder animal as well as large amount of foreign semen and livestock embryos in order to rapidly improve the genetics of Chinese livestock.[94] More advanced agricultural methods such as increasing use of pesticides has contributed to concerns regarding the Food safety in China.
Aquaculture and fishing
In 2008 the fishing industry in China accounted for 34% of the global output. Aquaculture in China had more than twice the output of capture fishing and contributed 62.3% of the global aquaculture output.[95] The rapid growth of aquaculture is in part due to Chinese research such as regarding the artificial breeding of carps.[96][97]
Chemistry, materials science and nanotechnology
A 2012 study found that China's share of academic papers in the field of nanotechnology had increased from less than 10% in 2000 to nearly a quarter in 2009 and had overtaken the United States for first position. However, China was less influential in the top three journals and regarding citations, suggesting a lesser quality.[98] In terms of the density of publication, however, the United States remained ahead, with 68.76 articles on nanotechnology per million inhabitants, compared to 25.44 per million for China in 2014.[30] China was in second place for the number of patents granted. A number of bodies have been created to establish national standards and ensure oversight.[98]
According to the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China, which is affiliated with the Ministry of Science and Technology, China contributed about one-quarter of all academic articles published around the world in materials science and chemistry and 17% of those published in physics between 2004 and 2014 but just 8.7% of those in molecular biology and genetics. This nevertheless represents a steep rise from just 1.4% of the world share of publications in molecular biology and genetics over 1999–2003.[30][32]
Deep sea exploration
China is developing its
Electronics and information technology
In 2009 China manufactured 48.3% of the world's televisions, 49.9% of mobile phones, 60.9% of personal computers and 75% of LCD monitors. Indigenously made electronic components have become an important source of recent growth.
Artificial intelligence
On 8 July 2017, the Chinese State Council announced plans to turn China into the world leader in artificial intelligence (AI) by 2030, seeking to make the industry worth 1 trillion yuan.[101] The State Council published a three-step road map to that effect in which it outlined how it expects AI to be developed and deployed across a wide number of industries and sectors, such as in areas from the military to city planning.[101] According to the road map, China plans to catch up to current AI world leaders' technological abilities by 2020, make major breakthroughs by 2025 and be the world leader in 2030.[102][103]
Drones and robotics
China is the leader in
In some regions, such as the Pearl River Delta, manufacturers have problems with labor shortages, raising wages, and higher expectations regarding work from more highly educated young people. This has increased the demand for industrial robots. As of 2017, China is the largest user and producer of robotics technology, as well as the first country in the world to perform an automated dental implant. It is the largest and fastest-growing robotics market in the world, and plans to manufacture at least 100,000 industrial robots annually by 2020.[109][110][111]
Software industry
The Chinese software industry in 2010 had a higher than 15% share of the world's software and information service market and had been growing by an average 36% each year during the previous decade. Chinese IT companies have been moving away from narrow downstream services and products to having a full range. China, with the active support of the Chinese government, is a leading pioneer in
According to the China Internet Network Information Center there were 751 million internet users as of 2017, with 53.2% of the population being internet users. The number of mobile internet users reached 724 million, with high penetration rates for mobile phones and broadband internet.[113][114] By 2017, China has the largest e-commerce market in the world, worth US$1.132 trillion, with a significant lead on other markets and almost tripling US market, the second largest.[115]
In 2017, there were more than 1.36 billion mobile subscribers in China, with the number of fixed line subscriptions hitting 310 million. The number of 4G users increased significantly, hitting 932 million by August 2017.[116][117][118] By 2020, China plans to adopt 5G network nationwide. State-owned China Telecom has already deployed 5G-oriented C-RAN fronthaul network, unveiling that it will be conducting commercial trials of 5G technology in 2019 and carry out network field trials in six Chinese cities in the latest sign of China's determination to lead the global deployment of the next-generation mobile technology.[119][120][121]
Microprocessors
China has its own versions of microprocessors, manufactured and developed domestically, which are also used to build the world's most powerful supercomputers.
processor architecture | Processor name | Manufacturer | supported OS | Supercomputer |
---|---|---|---|---|
RISC64 | SW26010
|
ShenWei | RaiseOS (Linux) | Sunway TaihuLight |
MIPS64 | Loongson, Godson | ICT & CAS | Android, Linux, BSD | Dawning 6000
|
Power8, Power9 (IBM) | PowerCore CP1, CP2 | Suzhou PowerCore | Suse Linux
|
|
SPARC64 | FeiTeng3rd gen, Galaxy FT-1500 | YinHeFeiTeng
|
Kylin Linux | Tianhe-2 |
IA64 (Itanium) | FeiTeng 1st gen | YinHeFeiTeng
|
||
ARM64 | Phytium Mars, Xiaomi | Phytium Technology | Kylin Linux | |
x86-64 (VIA) | KX-7000, KH-40000 | Zhaoxin | Unity Operating System | |
ARM64 | Kungpeng | HiSilicon | EulerOS/Unity Operating System | |
ARM64 | Kirin 900 | HiSilicon | Harmony OS
|
|
x86-64 (AMD Zen) | THATIC |
Supercomputing
Semiconductors
China's semiconductor industry has, despite extensive governmental support, had many problems, such as innovative new designs. This may be due to factors such as poorly guided state and local government support for soon outdated technologies and geographically scattered efforts, lacking engineering education, and poor protection of intellectual property. However various trends may change this, such a new emphasis on market mechanisms rather than direct support, concentration of efforts, the return of Chinese who have studied abroad, increased pressure on foreign companies to transfer technology, indigenous Chinese technological standards, and increased demands for indigenous technology in the local market.[37][128][129]
The country has rapidly progressed in the semiconductor industry, while backing its largest chip maker and developer, Tsinghua Unigroup, with a US$150 billion funding to secure China's dominance in the semiconductor technology, and build a world-class semiconductor industry over the next 5 years.[130][131][132] However, as of 2020 China has yet to achieve dominance.[133]
The
The China Research Institute of Film Science & Technology and the
Environment-friendly technologies
Rapid industrialization has been accompanied by many
Health sciences
Biotechnology and genetics
China in 2011 stated that
Neuroscientific research
On 22 March 2018, an agreement was signed establishing the Chinese Institute for Brain Science, Beijing.[147] The launch of this institute may represent a significant departure from the current policy focus on applied research and development.[32]
Once completed, the new brain institute will serve as a core facility for the country's planned project to study the human brain. The institute will not be part of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Rather, it will collaborate with the academy, along with Beijing's other leading biomedical institutions, including Tsinghua University, Peking University and the Academy of Military Medical Sciences.[32]
The new institute will probably receive funding both from the National Natural Science Foundation and from the mega-science programmes within the Scientific and Technological Innovation 2030 Project. In March 2018, the government announced plans to place the National Natural Science Foundation under the Ministry of Science and Technology but the implications of this latest reorganization of science are unclear, as the two agencies have different missions in support of basic research.[32]
Pharmaceuticals and medical technology
A 2011 report by
Industrial manufacturing
Development of advanced
Military technology
One example of new Chinese military technology is the
15-28% of governmental R&D expenditures may go to military research according to some unofficial estimates. The Chinese defense sector remains almost completely state-owned but military equipment production has been reorganized into corporate bodies allowing limited competition and the defense patent system has been reformed to allow greater rewards to innovative enterprises and individuals. The organizational structure has shed civilian applications while at the same time cooperation with the civilian sector has increased and state supported civilian research sometimes have
History of China's hydrogen bomb
China successfully tested a
It was a fully functional, full-scale, three-stage
China's H-bomb was different from the traditional Teller-Ulam configuration. As an advantage, it was completed without the calculations needed from supercomputers, which would consume a lot of time. To shrink the size of the weapon, the reflectors were made parabolic with the solid fusion fuel located at the foci. It is also known as Yu Min Design (or Yu-Deng Design) as Yu Min made major contributions including the solutions to a series of fundamental and critical theoretical problems of nuclear weapons, which led to breakthrough of the unique hydrogen bomb.
The goal of China was to produce a thermonuclear device of at least a megaton in yield that could be dropped by an aircraft or carried by a ballistic missile. Several explosions to test thermonuclear weapon designs, characteristics and yield boosting preceded the thermonuclear test.[1]
Mining and rare earth industry
Advisory firm The Beijing Axis director Lilian Luca in 2010 stated that China was becoming a world leader in
Finding rare earth elements is only the first and some argue the easiest step. Other steps towards manufacturing such as refining is controlled by China and Japan with the previously dominant United States having lost all of its producers and much of its fundamental technological ability with the number of scientists and engineers in the area declining dramatically.[163]
Polar research
The Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration (CAA) organizes China's scientific programme for both the Arctic and Antarctic. Polar research by China, in particular in Antarctica, has been growing rapidly. China now has three Antarctic research stations and one in the Arctic on the Norwegian island of Svalbard.[164][165]
Space science
The
China plans to launch 5 commercial satellites for foreign customers in 2012 and aims to capture 15% of the commercial launch market and 10% of the satellite export market by 2015. In 2011 China launched a total of 19 rockets, which was the second most after Russia.[169]
The
Textiles
China in 2012 produced more than one-third of the developed world's apparel import but the share has been decreasing in recent years as low-technology and labor-intensive production has been moving to regions like Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe.[172][173]
Transportation
Transportation infrastructure continues to be rapidly developed. The
Commercial aircraft
The state owned
Motor vehicles
The
Shipbuilding
In 2009-2010 China become the world's largest
Trains
The BBC wrote in a 2011 article on
See also
- CERNET
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Engineering
- Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
- China–United States trade war (2018–present)
- CSTNET
- History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China
- List of Chinese inventions
- Made in China 2025
- Science in newly industrialized countries
References
Citations
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Sources
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External links
- Ministry of Science and Technology
- China Association for Science and Technology (CAST)
- Science & Technology Links
- SciTech: Popular Science in China Archived November 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine China Radio International
- Chinese Science and the 'Nobel Prize Complex' by Cong Cao
- In Memoriam: Dr. Joseph Needham, 1900–1995 Erik Zürcher, International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) Newsletter
- 1995 CCP Central Committee and State Council "Decision on Accelerating S&T Development"
- Nanotechnology Ecosystem of China
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