Science diplomacy

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Science diplomacy is the use of scientific collaborations among nations, international organizations, and non-profit organizations to address common problems and to build international partnerships. Science diplomacy has become an umbrella term to describe a number of formal or informal technical, research-based, academic or engineering exchanges. Along with e.g. economic, digital or para-diplomacy, it is a subcategory of the so-called new diplomacy, as opposed to the long-standing traditional diplomacy known to date.^{[1][2][3][4][5]} Many of the global challenges related to health, economic growth, and climate change lay at the intersection of science and international relations.^[6] Science diplomacy can therefore be seen as a sub-field of international relations^[7][8][9] and typically involves at some level interactions between scholars and officials involved in diplomacy,^[10] although whether scientist diplomats or diplomat scientists are more effective is an open question.^[11]

History

The term ‘science diplomacy’ only began to emerge in the early 2000s, as a description of the need for new strategic partnerships at the country level to promote “activities of international cooperation and compromise on issues with a heavy scientific input”, on issues of global concern, such as

International Council of Scientific Unions, now the International Council of Science (ICSU).^[17] Through partnerships with international science unions and national science members, the ICSU focuses resources and tools towards the further development of scientific solutions to the world's challenges such as climate change, sustainable development, polar research, and the universality of science.

The first major post-War science-based diplomatic initiative was the Baruch Plan, which sought to internationalize fission under the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission and stop an atomic arms race.^[18] When this failed, the Cold War resulted,^[19] and America developed a separate fission energy diplomatic program, the 'Atoms for Peace' initiative.^[20]

The emergence of blocs during the era of industrial warfare also saw the deployment of technology as a means of influencing less developed countries, with the Cold War bringing ideologically bloc-based science diplomacy, in areas such as space exploration and the development of fission reactors and weapons, to its ultimate incarnation.^[7]

In the 1970s, Henry Kissinger requested, and took, several science initiatives to his talks with China. These initiatives focused on areas in which both countries could participate; as evidenced in the Shanghai Communiqués. In 1979, when official diplomatic ties were established between China and the U.S., science played a big role in the shaping of renewed efforts, and December 2010 marked the 30th anniversary of normalized relations between the United States and China.^[23]

In 1967, the African Scientific Institute was created to help African scientists reach others through published materials, conferences, seminars and provide tools for those who lack them.^[24] And in 1996, countries with interests in the Arctic came together to form the Arctic Council to discuss sustainable development and environmental protection.^[25][26]

Definition and types of activity

The attempts to conceptualise science diplomacy are still ongoing. There exists neither a clear-cut definition of the term nor a consensus on science diplomacy's stakeholders, instruments and activities. Science diplomacy as a discourse draws the attention of multiple social actors who present diverse interpretations of the concept. The debate is attended by researchers who study the history of science diplomacy or treat it as an empirical object as well as by actors who are or have been involved in science diplomacy practices. These are career diplomats, science counsellors/advisers, experts to national and international decision-making bodies, and politicians. Therefore, the definition of science diplomacy is not based on analytical categories but draws its meaning from a compilation of different narratives, approaches and ideas of changing and sometimes contested relations between science and foreign policy and the evolution of diplomacy and international relations per se.^{[27][28][29][5]}

There are numerous basic patterns via which scientific and technological advances influence international relations. These include:

1. as a juggernaut or escaped genie with rapid and wide-ranging ramifications for the international system;
2. as a game-changer and a conveyor of advantage and disadvantage to different actors in the international system;
3. as a source of risks, issues and problems that must be addressed and managed by the international community;
4. as key dimensions or enablers of international macro phenomena;
5. as instruments of foreign policy or sources of technical information for the management of an ongoing international regime;
6. as the subject of projects and institutions whose planning, design, implementation and management provide grist for the mill of international relations and diplomacy.^[30]

Before the term science diplomacy was coined, science diplomacy initiatives—-at least in the United States—were often called “smart power” or “soft power” by those in the field. The term “soft power” was coined by Joseph Nye in the book, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power.^[31] His notion of "smart power" became popular with the term's use by members of the Clinton and Obama administrations, although the Obama administration also used the term science diplomacy.^[32]

In 2010, the Royal Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science^[33] have categorized science diplomacy in three main types of activities:

• “Science in diplomacy”: Science can provide advice to inform and support foreign policy objectives
• “Diplomacy for science”: Diplomacy can facilitate international scientific cooperation
• "Science for diplomacy”: Scientific cooperation can improve international relations

In 2017, the current and former science advisers to the Foreign Ministers of the United States, New Zealand, the UK and Japan framed science diplomacy as:

• Actions designed to directly advance a country's national needs
• Actions designed to address cross-border interests
• Actions primarily designed to meet global needs and challenges ^[34]

CEO of the American Association for the Advancement of Science

In particular, science diplomacy suggests a means for helping manage paradigmatic and disruptive change. For instance, the sheer scale of the problem of climate change has caused researchers to call for the reinvention of science communication in order to address humanity's cognitive limits in coping with such a crisis,[42] with the International Panel on Climate Change alone constituting a science-diplomacy nexus.^[7] Especially within the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, the first calls to begin seeing science and its products as global public goods which should be tasked to fundamentally improve the human condition, especially in countries which are facing catastrophic change, are being made.^[43] While both science and technology create new risks in and of themselves, they can also alert humanity of risks, such as global warming, in both cases transforming commerce, diplomacy, intelligence, investment, and war.^[30] Science diplomacy challenges the way international relations operates as a field of human endeavor, presenting a ‘boundary problem’ involving actors from different social worlds.^[44]

The civilian scientific exchanges between the United States and the then Soviet Union throughout the Cold War provide another example of science diplomacy. These collaborations linked the two countries when official diplomatic connections were stalled.^[45] Today, the U.S. and Russia work together on the International Space Station and on the nuclear fusion science experiment ITER.

ITER is an international

Another example is the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). Following a series of meetings, UNESCO hearings and a formal ratification by 12 member nations—Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia— CERN was created. At present, CERN is run by 20 European member states,^[46] but many non-European countries are also involved in different ways. Scientists from some 608 institutes and universities around the world use CERN's facilities.^[47]

The European Union is also concerned with science diplomacy. Science collaboration is seen as a way to make diplomacy through "parallel means".^[48] Several EU-funded projects are currently exploring and conducting research on the topic of science diplomacy.

Individuals who are not connected with the government have also practiced science diplomacy. For example, in 1957, American philanthropist

Similar to individual initiatives, several non-profit organizations have continued science diplomacy practices in their work. CRDF Global, in partnership with the U.S. Department of State, launched the

Science diplomacy in the 21st century concerns open innovation and addresses global problems: it "encompasses the concept and practice of bridging distance and other divides (cultural, socioeconomic, technological, etc.) with focused and properly targeted initiatives to connect ideas and solutions with markets and investors..."[58]

The term "science diplomacy" gained popularity during the Obama administration,^[32] and academics called for a 'new era' of science diplomacy.^[13] In 2009, President Barack Obama called for partnership during his “A New Beginning” speech in Cairo, Egypt.^[59] These partnerships would include a greater focus on engagement of the Muslim world through science, technology, and innovation building and connecting scientists from the United States to scientists in Muslim-majority countries.^[60]

In a speech at the 2008

By the 2010s, the early emphasis on biosafety and plant genetic resources had given way to a longer list of specific risks for science diplomacy to address, including “the rising risks and dangers of climate change, a spread of infectious diseases, increasing energy costs, migration movements, and cultural clashes”.[37]^:675 Additional areas of interest include space exploration;^[62] the exploration of fundamental physics (e.g., CERN^[63] and ITER^[64]); the management of the polar regions;^[7][65] health research;^[66] the oil and mining sectors;^[67] fisheries;^[68] and international security,^[69] including global cybersecurity,^[70] as well as enormous geographic areas, such as the transatlantic^[38] and Indo-Pacific regions.^[71] Increasingly, science diplomacy has come to be seen as a multilateral endeavor to address both global challenges and the matter of global goods, via science internationals (such as the Malta Conferences^[72]); international NGOs, especially UN bodies; and various science-policy interfaces,^[7] such as the U.S. National Academies system.

Several U.S. Government agencies, including the White House ^[73] the State Department,^[74] and USAID have science and technology offices and advisors to aid with developing and creating S&T outreach policy. These advisors are regular speakers (e.g., J. Holdren, E.W. Colglazier, A. Dehgan, in 2010 and 2011) at meetings^[75] of the Science Diplomats Club of Washington, to strengthen links with foreign "science diplomats". E.W Colglazier and Alex Dehgan have also contributed to Science & Diplomacy.^[76]

On March 12, 2010, Congressman Howard Berman (D-CA) and Congressman Jeff Fortenberry (R-NE) introduced the Global Science Program for Security, Competitiveness, and Diplomacy Act,^[77] which proposed an increase in the application of science and scientific engagement in America's foreign policy.

Additionally, several non-profit organizations in the United States have continued science diplomacy practices in their work. CRDF Global, in partnership with the U.S. Department of State, launched the

In Spain, in December 2018, a group of stakeholders and experts on science diplomacy from around the world coming together at a global conference in Madrid defined several principles and highlighted the benefits of science diplomacy. As a result, the “Madrid Declaration on Science Diplomacy” was signed by a group of high-level experts who contributed to the conference. It proclaims a common vision of science diplomacy in the future, emphasises the benefits science diplomacy can bring to tackling the global challenges of our time and outlines the principles needed to foster science diplomacy worldwide.[84]

Science diplomacy, health and pandemics