Scorpion
Scorpions Temporal range:
Early Silurian – present | |
---|---|
Hottentotta tamulus from Mangaon, Maharashtra, India | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
Class: | Arachnida |
Clade: | Arachnopulmonata |
Order: | Scorpiones C. L. Koch, 1837 |
Families | |
see Taxonomy | |
Native range of Scorpiones |
Scorpions are
Scorpions primarily prey on
The vast majority of species do not seriously threaten humans, and healthy adults usually do not need medical treatment after a sting. About 25 species (fewer than one
Scorpions appear in art, folklore, mythology, and commercial brands.
Etymology
The word scorpion originated in Middle English between 1175 and 1225 AD from Old French scorpion,[1] or from Italian scorpione, both derived from the Latin scorpio, equivalent to scorpius,[2] which is the romanization of the Greek σκορπίος – skorpíos,[3] with no native IE etymology (cfr. Arabic ʕaqrab 'scorpion', Proto-Germanic *krabbô 'crab').
Evolution
Fossil record
Scorpion
Phylogeny
The Scorpiones are a
Chelicerata |
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Recent studies place pseudoscorpions as the sister group of scorpions in the clade Panscorpiones, which together with Tetrapulmonata makes up the clade Arachnopulmonata.[15]
The internal
Scorpiones |
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Taxonomy
More recently, some twenty-two families containing over 2,500 species of scorpions have been described, with many additions and much reorganization of taxa in the 21st century.[20][5][21] There are over 100 described taxa of fossil scorpions.[9] This classification is based on Soleglad and Fet (2003),[22] which replaced Stockwell's older, unpublished classification.[23] Further taxonomic changes are from papers by Soleglad et al. (2005).[24][25]
The extant taxa to the rank of family (numbers of species in parentheses[20]) are:
- Order Scorpiones
- Parvorder , 2003
- Superfamily Pseudochactoidea Gromov, 1998
- Family Pseudochactidae Gromov, 1998 (1 sp.) (Central Asian scorpions of semi-savanna habitats)
- Superfamily
- Parvorder , 2003
- Superfamily Buthoidea C. L. Koch, 1837
- Family Buthidae C. L. Koch, 1837 (1209 spp.) (thick-tailed scorpions, including the most dangerous species)
- Family Microcharmidae Lourenço, 1996, 2019 (17 spp.) (African scorpions of humid forest leaf litter)
- Superfamily Buthoidea C. L. Koch, 1837
- Parvorder , 2003
- Superfamily Chaeriloidea Pocock, 1893
- Family Chaerilidae Pocock, 1893 (51 spp.) (South and Southeast Asian scorpions of non-arid places)
- Superfamily
- Parvorder Iurida Soleglad & Fet, 2003
- Superfamily Chactoidea Pocock, 1893
- Family AkravidaeLevy, 2007 (1 sp.) (cave-dwelling scorpions of Israel)
- Family Belisariidae Lourenço, 1998 (3 spp.) (cave-related scorpions of Southern Europe)
- Family Chactidae Pocock, 1893 (209 spp.) (New World scorpions, membership under revision)
- Family Euscorpiidae Laurie, 1896 (170 spp.) (harmless scorpions of the Americas, Eurasia, and North Africa)
- Family Stahnke, 1940 (1 sp.) (cave scorpions of Mexico and Southwestern United States)
- Family Troglotayosicidae Lourenço, 1998 (4 spp.) (cave-related scorpions of South America)
- Family Typhlochactidae Mitchell, 1971 (11 spp.) (cave-related scorpions of Eastern Mexico)
- Family Thorell, 1876 (222 spp.) (New World scorpions)
- Family
- Superfamily Thorell, 1876
- Family Caraboctonidae Kraepelin, 1905 (23 spp.) (hairy scorpions)
- Family Stahnke, 1974 (9 spp.) (large North American scorpions)
- Family Thorell, 1876 (21 spp.) (scorpions with a large tooth on inner side of moveable claw)
- Superfamily Scorpionoidea Latreille, 1802
- Family Bothriuridae Simon, 1880 (158 spp.) (Southern hemisphere tropical and temperate scorpions)
- Family Hemiscorpiidae Pocock, 1893 (16 spp.) (rock, creeping, or tree scorpions of the Middle East)
- Family Hormuridae Laurie, 1896 (92 spp.) (flattened, crevice-living scorpions of Southeast Asia and Australia)
- Family RugodentidaeBastawade et al., 2005 (1 sp.) (burrowing scorpions of India)
- Family Scorpionidae Latreille, 1802 (183 spp.) (burrowing or pale-legged scorpions)
- Family Diplocentridae Karsch, 1880 (134 spp.) (closely related to and sometimes placed in Scorpionidae, but have spine on telson)
- Family Heteroscorpionidae Kraepelin, 1905 (6 spp.) (scorpions of Madagascar)
- Superfamily
Geographical distribution
Scorpions are found on all continents except
Scorpions are xerocoles, meaning they primarily live in deserts, but they can be found in virtually every terrestrial habitat including high-elevation mountains, caves, and intertidal zones. They are largely absent from boreal ecosystems such as the tundra, high-altitude taiga, and mountain tops.[36][5] The highest altitude reached by a scorpion is 5,500 meters (18,000 ft) in the Andes, for Orobothriurus crassimanus.[37]
As regards
Morphology
Scorpions range in size from the 8.5 mm (0.33 in)
Cephalothorax
The cephalothorax comprises the
The pedipalp is a segmented, clawed
Mesosoma
The mesosoma or preabdomen is the broad part of the opisthosoma.
The next four somites, 3 to 6, all bear pairs of
The mesosoma contains the heart or "dorsal vessel" which is the center of the scorpion's
Metasoma
The "tail" or metasoma consists of five segments and the telson, which is not strictly a segment. The five segments are merely body rings; they lack apparent sterna or terga, and become larger distally. These segments have keels, setae and bristles which may be used for taxonomic classification. The anus is at the distal and ventral end of the last segment, and is encircled by four anal papillae and the anal arch.[57] The tails of some species contain light receptors.[44]
The telson includes the vesicle, which contains a symmetrical pair of venom glands. Externally it bears the curved stinger, the hypodermic aculeus, equipped with sensory hairs. Each of the venom glands has its own duct to convey its secretion along the aculeus from the bulb of the gland to immediately near of the tip, where each of the paired ducts has its own venom pore.[63] An extrinsic muscle system in the tail moves it forward and propels and penetrates with the aculeus, while an intrinsic muscle system attached to the glands pumps venom through the stinger into the intended victim.[64] The stinger contains metalloproteins with zinc, hardening the tip.[65] The optimal stinging angle is around 30 degrees relative to the tip.[66]
Biology
Most scorpion species are
Scorpions prefer areas where the temperature remains in the range of 11–40 °C (52–104 °F), but may survive temperatures from well below freezing to desert heat.
Desert scorpions have several adaptations for water conservation. They excrete insoluble compounds such as
A scorpion uses its stinger both for killing prey and defense. Some species make direct, quick strikes with their tails while others make slower, more circular strikes which can more easily return the stinger to a position where it can strike again. Leiurus quinquestriatus can whip its tail at a speed of up to 128 cm/s (50 in/s) in a defensive strike.[75]
Mortality and defense
Scorpions may be attacked by other arthropods like ants, spiders,
When threatened, a scorpion raises its claws and tail in a defensive posture. Some species
Diet and feeding
Scorpions generally prey on insects, particularly
Scorpions, like other arachnids, digest their food externally. The chelicerae, which are very sharp, are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item into a pre-oral cavity below the chelicerae and carapace. The digestive juices from the gut are egested onto the food, and the digested food is then sucked into the gut in liquid form. Any solid indigestible matter (such as
Mating
Most scorpions reproduce sexually, with male and female individuals; species in some genera, such as Hottentotta and Tityus, and the species Centruroides gracilis, Liocheles australasiae, and Ananteris coineaui have been reported, not necessarily reliably, to reproduce through parthenogenesis, in which unfertilized eggs develop into living embryos.[88] Receptive females produce pheromones which are picked up by wandering males using their pectines to comb the substrate. Males begin courtship by moving their bodies back and forth, without moving the legs, a behavior known as juddering. This appears to produce ground vibrations that are picked up by the female.[61]
The pair then make contact using their pedipalps, and perform a dance called the promenade à deux (French for "a walk for two"). In this dance, the male and female move back and forth while facing each other, as the male searches for a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. The courtship ritual can involve several other behaviors such as a cheliceral kiss, in which the male and female grasp each other's mouth-parts, arbre droit ("upright tree") where the partners elevate their posteriors and rub their tails together, and sexual stinging, in which the male stings the female in the chelae or mesosoma to subdue her. The dance can last from a few minutes to several hours.[89][90]
When the male has located a suitably stable substrate, such as hard ground, agglomerated sand, rock, or tree bark, he deposits the spermatophore and guides the female over it. This allows the spermatophore to enter her genital opercula, which triggers release of the sperm, thus fertilizing the female. A mating plug then forms in the female to prevent her from mating again before the young are born. The male and female then abruptly separate.[91][92] Sexual cannibalism after mating has only been reported anecdotally in scorpions.[93]
Birth and development
Before giving birth, the female elevates the front of her body and positions her pedipalps and front legs under her to catch the young ("birth basket"). The young emerge one by one from the genital opercula, expel the embryonic membrane, if any, and are placed on the mother's back where they remain until they have gone through at least one molt. The period before the first molt is called the pro-juvenile stage; the young are unable to feed or sting, but have suckers on their tarsi, used to hold on to their mother. This period lasts 5 to 25 days, depending on the species. The brood molt for the first time simultaneously in a process that lasts 6 to 8 hours, marking the beginning of the juvenile stage.[98]
Juvenile stages or instars generally resemble smaller versions of adults, with fully developed pincers, hairs and stingers. They are still soft and lack pigments, and thus continue to ride on their mother's back for protection. They become harder and more pigmented over the next couple of days. They may leave their mother temporarily, returning when they sense potential danger. Once the exoskeleton is fully hardened, the young can hunt prey on their own and may soon leave their mother.[100] A scorpion may molt six times on average before reaching maturity, which may not occur until it is 6 to 83 months old, depending on the species. Some species may live up to 25 years.[94]
Fluorescence
Scorpions glow a vibrant blue-green when exposed to certain wavelengths of
Relationship with humans
Stings
Scorpion venom serves to kill or paralyze prey rapidly. The
Scorpion stings are a public health problem, particularly in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, North Africa, the Middle East and India. Around 1.5 million scorpion envenomations occur each year with around 2,600 deaths.[107][108][109] Mexico is one of the most affected countries, with the highest biodiversity of scorpions in the world, some 200,000 envenomations per year and at least 300 deaths.[110][111]
Efforts are made to prevent envenomation and to control scorpion populations. Prevention encompasses personal activities such as checking shoes and clothes before putting them on, not walking in bare feet or sandals, and filling in holes and cracks where scorpions might nest. Street lighting reduces scorpion activity. Control may involve the use of
Potential medicinal use
Scorpion venom is a mixture of neurotoxins; most of these are
Consumption
Scorpions are eaten by people in West Africa, Myanmar[114] and East Asia. Fried scorpion is traditionally eaten in Shandong, China.[115] There, scorpions can be cooked and eaten in a variety of ways, including roasting, frying, grilling, raw, or alive. The stingers are typically not removed, since direct and sustained heat negates the harmful effects of the venom.[116] In Thailand, scorpions are not eaten as often as other arthropods, such as grasshoppers, but they are sometimes fried as street food.[117] They are used in Vietnam to make snake wine (scorpion wine).[118]
Pets
Scorpions are often kept as pets. They are relatively simple to keep, the main requirements being a secure enclosure such as a glass
Culture
-
Late period bronze figure of Isis-Serket
-
"Scorpion and snake fighting",Anglo-Saxon Herbal, c. 1050
-
The constellation Scorpius, depicted in Urania's Mirror as "Scorpio", London, c. 1825
-
A scorpion motif (two types shown) was often woven into Turkish kilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting.[122]
The scorpion is a culturally significant animal, appearing as a motif in art, especially in Islamic art in the Middle East.[123] A
One of the earliest occurrences of the scorpion in culture is its inclusion, as
The
Since
The scorpion has served as the name or symbol of products and brands including Italy's Abarth racing cars[145] and a Montesa scrambler motorcycle.[146] A hand- or forearm-balancing
Notes
References
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in his left [hand] he carries a long spear and a shield with device in black silhouette of a scorpion to left. ... Made in: Attica, Greece ... Findspot: Nola, Italy
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(German) Die Moral der Fabel besagt: Manche Menschen handeln von Natur aus mörderisch und selbst-mörderisch zugleich. (English) The moral of the fable says: Some people act naturally murderous and self-murderous at the same time.
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The company logo has been the scorpion since the very start; Carlo Abarth did not only want it as a reference to his zodiac sign, but also because it was an original and hard to imitate logo. At the beginning the scorpion was free from any contour and featured the typo "Abarth & Co.- Torino". In 1954 a shield was added, as symbol of victory and passion;
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Permanyer persisted, built larger engines, and in 1965 showed the 247cc engine (21 horsepower at 7,000 rpm) in a Scorpion motocrosser.
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Sources
- Polis, Gary (1990). The Biology of Scorpions. OCLC 18991506.
- Stockmann, Roland; Ythier, Eric (2010). Scorpions of the World. N. A. P. Editions. ISBN 978-2913688117.
- Stockmann, Roland (2015). "Introduction to Scorpion Biology and Ecology". In Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Possani, L.; F. Schwartz, E.; Rodríguez de la Vega, R. (eds.). Scorpion Venoms. ISBN 978-94-007-6403-3.
External links
- American Museum of Natural History - Scorpion Systematics Research Group
- CDC – Insects and Scorpions – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic