Scottish literature

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Scottish Fiction" redirects here. For the Idlewild album, see Scottish Fiction: Best of 1997–2007.

Three great men of Scottish literature: busts of Burns, Scott and Stevenson

Scottish literature is literature written in

Latin, Norn
or other languages written within the modern boundaries of Scotland.

The earliest extant literature written in what is now Scotland, was composed in Brythonic speech in the sixth century and has survived as part of Welsh literature. In the following centuries there was literature in Latin, under the influence of the Catholic Church, and in Old English, brought by Anglian settlers. As the state of Alba developed into the kingdom of Scotland from the eighth century, there was a flourishing literary elite who regularly produced texts in both Gaelic and Latin, sharing a common literary culture with Ireland and elsewhere. After the Davidian Revolution of the thirteenth century a flourishing French language culture predominated, while Norse literature was produced from areas of Scandinavian settlement. The first surviving major text in Early Scots literature is the fourteenth-century poet John Barbour's epic Brus, which was followed by a series of vernacular versions of medieval romances. These were joined in the fifteenth century by Scots prose works.

In the early modern era royal patronage supported poetry, prose and drama.

Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the nineteenth century. Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations, including Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald
.

In the twentieth century there was a surge of activity in Scottish literature, known as the

Poet Laureate
in May 2009.

Middle Ages

Main article: Scottish literature in the Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages

See also:
Scotland in the Early Middle Ages
A page from the Book of Aneirin, containing part of the Gododdin, c. sixth century

After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century, four major circles of political and cultural influence emerged in Northern Britain. In the east were the

The Old North", the most powerful and longest surviving of which was the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Finally, there were the English or "Angles", Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia (later the northern part of Northumbria), which reached into what are now the Lothians and the Scotiish Borders in the south-east.[1] To these Christianisation, particularly from the sixth century, added Latin as an intellectual and written language. Modern scholarship, based on surviving placenames and historical evidence, indicates that the Picts spoke a Brythonic language, but none of their literature seems to have survived into the modern era.[2] However, there is surviving literature from what would become Scotland in Brythonic, Gaelic, Latin and Old English
.

Much of the earliest

Battle of Gwen Ystrad is attributed to Taliesin, traditionally thought to be a bard at the court of Rheged in roughly the same period.[3]

There are religious works in

Life of St. Ninian, was written in Latin in Whithorn in the eighth century.[7]

In Old English there is The

Northumbrian Old English from early Medieval Scotland.[8] It has also been suggested on the basis of ornithological references that the poem The Seafarer was composed somewhere near the Bass Rock in East Lothian.[9]

High Middle Ages

See also: Scotland in the High Middle Ages
Book of Deer, folio 5r, containing the text of the Gospel of Matthew from 1:18 through 1:21

Beginning in the later eighth century,

filidh, who acted as poets, musicians and historians, often attached to the court of a lord or king, and passed on their knowledge and culture in Gaelic to the next generation.[12][13]

From the eleventh century French,

gallicisation" of the Scottish court, a less highly regarded order of bards took over the functions of the filidh and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century. They often trained in bardic schools, of which a few, like the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty, who were bards to the Lord of the Isles,[15] existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland, until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century.[13] Members of bardic schools were trained in the complex rules and forms of Gaelic poetry.[16] Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century.[12]

It is possible that more Middle Irish literature was written in medieval Scotland than is often thought, but has not survived because the Gaelic literary establishment of eastern Scotland died out before the fourteenth century. Thomas Owen Clancy has argued that the

Gille Brighde Albanach. About 1218, Gille Brighde wrote a poem—Heading for Damietta—on his experiences of the Fifth Crusade.[18]

In the thirteenth century,

Orkneyinga Saga however, although it pertains to the Earldom of Orkney, was written in Iceland.[20] In addition to French, Latin too was a literary language, with works that include the "Carmen de morte Sumerledi", a poem which exults triumphantly the victory of the citizens of Glasgow over Somairle mac Gilla Brigte[21] and the "Inchcolm Antiphoner", a hymn in praise of St. Columba.[22]

Late Middle Ages

See also:
Scotland in the Late Middle Ages
James I, who spent much of his life imprisoned in England, where he gained a reputation as a musician and poet

In the late Middle Ages, early Scots, often simply called English, became the dominant language of the country. It was derived largely from Old English, with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French. Although resembling the language spoken in northern England, it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century onwards.[16] It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French. By the fifteenth century it was the language of government, with acts of parliament, council records and treasurer's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards. As a result, Gaelic, once dominant north of the River Tay, began a steady decline.[16] Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic as a second class, rustic and even amusing language, helping to frame attitudes towards the highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the lowlands.[16]

The first surviving major text in Scots literature is

historical romance with the verse chronicle. They were probably influenced by Scots versions of popular French romances that were also produced in the period, including The Buik of Alexander, Launcelot o the Laik and The Porteous of Noblenes by Gilbert Hay.[16]

Much Middle Scots literature was produced by

Kirk. However, Dunbar's Lament for the Makaris (c.1505) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk now largely lost.[25] Before the advent of printing in Scotland, writers such as Robert Henryson, William Dunbar, Walter Kennedy and Gavin Douglas have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry.[16]

In the late fifteenth century, Scots prose also began to develop as a genre. Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose, such as the Auchinleck Chronicle,

Flodden.[16]

Early modern era

Reformation-era literature
Overview
British


  • Pastoral
  • Morality
  • History
  • Tragedy
  • Revenge
    		•
    Continental

    Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age

    Folklore of the Low Countries
    Scandinavian
    Main articles: Literature in early modern Scotland and Renaissance in Scotland

    Sixteenth century

    William Alexander
    , statesman and author

    As a patron of poets and authors

    Lyon Court, was a prolific poet. He wrote elegiac narratives, romances and satires.[31] George Buchanan (1506–82) had a major influence as a Latin poet, founding a tradition of neo-Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century.[32] Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland (1537–95), reformer Andrew Melville (1545–1622), John Johnston (1570?–1611) and David Hume of Godscroft (1558–1629).[33]

    From the 1550s, in the reign of

    Calvinism, also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature. Nevertheless, poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington (1496–1586), who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar; John Rolland (fl. 1530–75), who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume (c. 1556–1609), whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse. Alexander Scott's (?1520–82/3) use of short verse designed to be sung to music, opened the way for the Castilan poets of James VI's adult reign.[31]

    In the 1580s and 1590s James VI strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots. His treatise,

    Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, to which he applied Renaissance principles.[34] He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians, later called the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler (c. 1560–1612), John Stewart of Baldynneis (c. 1545–c. 1605), and Alexander Montgomerie (c. 1550–98).[35] They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms, including sonnets and short sonnets, for narrative, nature description, satire and meditations on love. Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander (c. 1567–1640), Alexander Craig (c. 1567–1627) and Robert Ayton (1570–1627).[31] By the late 1590s the king's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne.[36]

    Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540, which satirised the corruption of church and state, and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation.[30] Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes, which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo-classical tradition in French drama, but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium.[37] The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play (before 1568)[38] and Philotus (published in London in 1603), are isolated examples of surviving plays. The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors, probably designed for court performance for Mary, Queen of Scots or James VI.[39] The same system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland, but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599.[40]

    Seventeenth century

    The first page of The Assembly by Archibald Pitcairne from the 1766 edition

    Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", following his accession to the English throne, James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English

    high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined.[45] The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585–1649).[38]

    As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined, a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge. While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century, the vernacular continued to develop. In contrast to the Classical tradition, which used syllabic metre, vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre. However, they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role, as the verse was still often panegyric. A number of these vernacular poets were women,[46] such as Mary MacLeod of Harris (c. 1615–1707).[47]

    The tradition of neo-Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum (1637), published in Amsterdam by

    Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet (1585–1670) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan.[32] This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets.[38] Elizabeth Melville's (f. 1585–1630) Ane Godlie Dream (1603) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland.[48] Anna Hume, daughter of David Hume of Godscroft, adapted Petrarch's Triumphs as Triumphs of Love: Chastitie: Death (1644).[38]

    This was the period when the

    Lady Grizel Baillie (1645–1746).[51]

    The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the kirk's dislike of theatre, which struggled to survive in Scotland.

    Spanish comedy.[53] A relative of Sydsurf, physician Archibald Pitcairne (1652–1713) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation (1692), a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian kirk, circulating in manuscript, but not published until 1722, helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre.[54]

    Eighteenth century

    Main articles: Scottish literature in the eighteenth century and Scottish Enlightenment
    See also: Scotland in the modern era
    Allan Ramsay, the most influential literary figure in early eighteenth-century Scotland

    After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England, the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education.

    poetic form.[58] His Tea-Table Miscellany (1724–37) contained poems old Scots folk material, his own poems in the folk style and "gentilizings" of Scots poems in the English neo-classical style.[59] His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era.[54] He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital.[60]

    Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. These included

    Dickens.[63]

    The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures included

    Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir (Duncan Ban MacIntyre) (1724–1812). The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (Alasdair MacDonald) (c. 1698–1770). His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald's Gallery. He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands, including Thompson's Seasons, which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic, which was not focused on their relations to human concerns.[47]

    Robert Burns (1759–96) considered by many to be the Scottish national poet

    Herder and Goethe.[64] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[65]

    Robert Burns was highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the

    Scottish cultural identity, poverty, sexuality, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising.[69] Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg (1770–1835), Allan Cunningham (1784–1842) and John Galt (1779–1839),[70]

    Engraving of playwright Joanna Baillie

    Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as

    Masque of Alfred (1740) was a collaboration between Thompson, Mallet and composer Thomas Arne, with Thompson supplying the lyrics for his most famous work, the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia!".[71]

    In Scotland performances were largely limited to performances by visiting actors, who faced hostility from the Kirk.

    Gothic Romanticism.[73]

    Nineteenth century

    Main articles: Scottish literature in the nineteenth century and Romanticism in Scotland
    Waverley Novels
    helped define Scottish identity in the 19th century

    Scottish poetry is often seen as entering a period of decline in the nineteenth century,

    James Thomson (1834–82) and John Davidson (1857–1909), whose work would have a major impact on modernist poets including Hugh MacDiarmid, Wallace Stevens and T. S. Eliot.[76] The Highland Clearances and widespread emigration significantly weakened Gaelic language and culture and had a profound impact on the nature of Gaelic poetry. The best poetry in this vein contained a strong element of protest, including Uilleam Mac Dhun Lèibhe's (William Livingstone, 1808–70) protest against the Islay and Seonaidh Phàdraig Iarsiadair's (John Smith, 1848–81) condemnation of those responsible for the clearances. The best known Gaelic poet of the era was Màiri Mhòr nan Óran (Mary MacPherson, 1821–98), whose evocation of place and mood has made her among the most enduring Gaelic poets.[47]

    Walter Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.[77] It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century.[78]

    Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. The existing repertoire of Scottish-themed plays included John Home's Douglas (1756) and Ramsay's The Gentle Shepherd (1725), with the last two being the most popular plays among amateur groups.[79] Scott was keenly interested in drama, becoming a shareholder in the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh.[80] Baillie's Highland themed The Family Legend was first produced in Edinburgh in 1810 with the help of Scott, as part of a deliberate attempt to stimulate a national Scottish drama.[81] Scott also wrote five plays, of which Hallidon Hill (1822) and MacDuff's Cross (1822), were patriotic Scottish histories.[80] Adaptations of the Waverley novels, largely first performed in minor theatres, rather than the larger Patent theatres, included The Lady in the Lake (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1819), and Rob Roy, which underwent over 1,000 performances in Scotland in this period. Also adapted for the stage were Guy Mannering, The Bride of Lammermoor and The Abbot. These highly popular plays saw the social range and size of the audience for theatre expand and helped shape theatre-going practices in Scotland for the rest of the century.[79]

    Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era,

    The Edinburgh Review, founded in 1802 and Blackwood's Magazine, founded in 1817. Together they had a major impact on the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism.[82][83]

    Thomas Carlyle, in such works as Sartor Resartus (1833–34), The French Revolution: A History (1837) and On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History (1841), profoundly influenced philosophy and literature of the age.

    In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations. Robert Louis Stevenson's work included the urban Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like Kidnapped and Treasure Island. Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction. The "kailyard tradition" at the end of the century, brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie, most famous for his creation of Peter Pan and George MacDonald whose works including Phantastes played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre.[84]

    Twentieth century to the present

    Main articles: Literature in modern Scotland and Scottish Renaissance
    See also: Scotland in the modern era
    A bust of Hugh MacDiarmid sculpted in 1927 by William Lamb

    In the early twentieth century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by

    Neil Gunn, George Blake, Nan Shepherd, A. J. Cronin, Naomi Mitchison, Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon, and the playwright James Bridie. All were born within a fifteen-year period (1887–1901) and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues.[85] This period saw the emergence of a tradition of popular or working class theatre. Hundreds of amateur groups were established, particularly in the growing urban centres of the Lowlands. Amateur companies encouraged native playwrights, including Robert McLellan.[86]

    Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, including

    Scots Makar (the official national poet), appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.[87] The shift to drama that focused on working class life in the post-war period gained momentum with Robert McLeish's The Gorbals Story[88] and the work of Ena Lamont Stewart,[89] Robert Kemp and George Munro.[88] Many major Scottish post-war novelists, such as Muriel Spark, James Kennaway, Alexander Trocchi, Jessie Kesson and Robin Jenkins spent much or most of their lives outside Scotland, but often dealt with Scottish themes, as in Spark's Edinburgh-set The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961)[85] and Kennaway's script for the film Tunes of Glory (1956).[90] Successful mass-market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean, and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett.[85] A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Shena Mackay, Alan Spence, Allan Massie and the work of William McIlvanney.[85]

    Poet Laureate

    From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic, poet and teacher

    Poet Laureate in May 2009, the first woman, the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post.[92]

    See also

    References

    Notes

    1. ISBN 1-85285-195-3
      , p. 48.
    2. ISBN 1-85109-440-7
      , p. 305.
    3. ISBN 0-313-30054-2
      , p. 508.
    4. ISBN 1-85109-440-7
      , p. 999.
    5. ISBN 0-7486-1615-2
      , p. 94.
    6. ISBN 0-543-96628-3
      , p. 217.
    7. ISBN 0521189365
      , p. 19.
    8. ISBN 1-4051-1313-8
      , p. 108.
    9. ISBN 0521189365
      , p. 16.
    10. ISBN 0582772923
      , p. 54.
    11. ISBN 0718500849
      , p. 238.
    12. ^
      ISBN 019538623X
      .
    13. ^
      ISBN 0521890888
      , p. 76.
    14. ISBN 1862321515
      , p. 133.
    15. ISBN 0748612998
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    16. ^
      ISBN 0748602763
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    17. ISBN 1-85182-516-9
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    18. ISBN 0-86241-787-2
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    19. ISBN 0-330-53997-3
      .
    20. ISBN 0-86241-787-2
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    21. ISBN 0-901824-68-2
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    22. ISBN 0-947988-81-5
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    23. ISBN 0-86241-681-7
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    24. ISBN 81-269-0041-5
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    25. ^ A. Grant, Independence and Nationhood, Scotland 1306–1469 (Baltimore: Edward Arnold, 1984), pp. 102–3.
    26. ^ Thomas Thomson, ed., Auchinleck Chronicle (Edinburgh, 1819).
    27. ISBN 0-7546-6273-X
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    28. ISBN 1-84384-096-0
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    29. ISBN 0-19-211696-7
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    30. ^
      ISBN 0-7486-1615-2
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    31. ^
      ISBN 0-19-211696-7
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    32. ^
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    33. ^ "Bridging the Continental divide: neo-Latin and its cultural role in Jacobean Scotland, as seen in the Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum (1637)", University of Glasgow. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
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    35. ISBN 0-7073-0367-2
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    36. ISBN 0-08-037728-9
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    37. ^
      ISBN 0748641076
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    38. ^
      ISBN 0-19-211696-7
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    39. ^
      ISBN 0748641076
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    40. ISBN 0748641076
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    41. ISBN 0748602763
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    42. ^
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    43. ISBN 0-08-037728-9
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    44. ISBN 0-7190-6636-0
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    45. ISBN 0-08-037728-9
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    46. ISBN 113946714X
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    47. ^
      ISBN 0-19-211696-7
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    48. ISBN 1847921140
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    49. ISBN 0-86241-477-6
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    50. ISBN 0-19-538623-X
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    51. ISBN 0-19-538623-X
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    52. ISBN 0851159303
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    53. ISBN 091119830X
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    54. ^
      ISBN 0748641076
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    55. ^ C. Jones, A Language Suppressed: The Pronunciation of the Scots Language in the 18th Century (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1993), p. vii.
    56. ISBN 0-7486-1596-2
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    57. ISBN 0521264782
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    58. ISBN 0-06-055888-1
    59. ISBN 0585041555
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    60. ^
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    61. ISBN 1847674666
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    62. ISBN 0820319716
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    63. ISBN 0-19-538623-X
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    64. ISBN 0-06-055888-1
    65. ^ D. Thomson (1952), The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian", Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd
    66. S2CID 144358210
    67. ^ Robert Burns: "Literary Style Archived 2013-10-16 at the Wayback Machine". Retrieved 24 September 2010.
    68. ^ Robert Burns: "hae meat". Retrieved 24 September 2010.
    69. ^ Red Star Cafe: "to the Kibble." Retrieved 24 September 2010.
    70. ISBN 0816074968
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    71. ISBN 0748641076
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    72. ^
      ISBN 0521650682
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    73. ISBN 0748624813
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    74. ^
      ISBN 0748624813
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    75. ISBN 074863309X
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    76. ISBN 074862015X
      , pp. xxxiv–xxxv.
    77. ISBN 0-7546-6142-3
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    78. ISBN 0-7453-1608-5
      , p. 136.
    79. ^
      ISBN 0748624813
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    80. ^
      ISBN 0748624813
      , pp. 185–6.
    81. ISBN 0754665690
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    82. ISBN 0631233555
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    83. ISBN 0754664465
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    84. ^ "Cultural Profile: 19th and early 20th century developments", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011
    85. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, archived from the original on 30 September 2011
    86. ISBN 0521651328
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    87. ^ The Scots Makar, The Scottish Government, 16 February 2004, archived from the original on 4 February 2012, retrieved 28 October 2007
    88. ^
      ISBN 0521651328
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    89. ISBN 0521651328
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    90. ISBN 978-0-906391-46-4
    91. ISBN 0521651328
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    92. ^ "Duffy reacts to new Laureate post", BBC News, 1 May 2009, archived from the original on 30 October 2011

    Bibliography

    External links
    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_literature&oldid=1211287186"