Scythian languages
Scythian | |
---|---|
Native to | Sarmatia, Scythia, Sistan, Scythia Minor, Alania |
Region | Central Asia, West Asia, Eastern Europe |
Ethnicity | Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans |
Era | Classical antiquity, late antiquity Middle Ages (Alanian) |
Dialects |
|
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | Variously:xsc – Scythianxln – Alanianoos – Old Ossetian |
xsc Scythian | |
xln Alanian | |
oos Old Ossetian | |
Glottolog | sogd1247 Sogdic-Osseticsaka1303 Saka-Wakhi |
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Indo-European topics |
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The Scythian languages (
Most of the Scythian languages eventually became extinct, except for modern
Unfortunately, we know next to nothing about the Scythian of that period [Old Iranian] – we have only a couple of personal and tribal names in Greek and Persian sources at our disposal – and cannot even determine with any degree of certainty whether it was a single language.
Classification
Ossetian is an Eastern Iranic language. The vast majority of Scythological scholars agree in considering the Scythian languages a part of the Eastern Iranic languages too. This relies principally on the fact that the Greek inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Coast contain several hundreds of Sarmatian names showing a close affinity to the Ossetian language.[2][3]
Some scholars detect a division of Scythian into two dialects: a western, more conservative dialect, and an eastern, more innovative one.[4] The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum:
- Alanian languages or Scytho-Sarmatian in the west: were spoken by people originally of Iranic stock from the 8th and 7th century BC onwards in the area of Ukraine, Southern Russia and Kazakhstan.
- Modern Ossetian survives as a continuation of the language family possibly represented by Scytho-Sarmatian inscriptions, although the Scytho-Sarmatian language family "does not simply represent the same [Ossetian] language" at an earlier date.
It is highly probable that already in the Old Iranic period there were some eastern Scythian dialects which gave rise to ancestor(s) of Sogdian language and Yaghnobi, although data required to test this hypothesis is presently lacking.[6]
The Scythian languages shared some features with other Eastern Iranic languages, such as the use of the suffix -ta to denote the plural form, which is also present in Sogdian, Chorasmian, Ossetian, and Yaghnobi.[7]
Phonology
The Pontic Scythian language possessed the following phonemes:[8]
Front | Back | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i | iː | u | uː |
Mid | eː | oː | ||
Open | a | aː |
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labiovelar | Glottal | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive
|
p | b | t |
d (earliest)
|
k | ɡ | ||||||||||
Affricate
|
t͡s | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | |||||||||||||
Fricative
|
f | θ | ð (earlier) | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | x | xʷ | h | ||||||
Sonorant | m | w | l (later) |
n |
r
|
j | (ŋ) |
This article uses cursive theta ⟨ϑ⟩ to denote the Scythian
The western dialects of the Scythian languages had experienced an evolution of the Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into the Proto-Scythian sound /ð/, which in the Cimmerian and Pontic dialects of Scythian became the sound /l/. Scythian shares the evolution of Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into /ð/ with all Eastern Iranic languages with the exception of Ossetian, Yaghnobi, and Ishkashimi; and the later evolution of /ð/ into /l/ is also present in several Eastern Iranic languages such as Bactrian, Pashto, Munjani, and Yidgha.[7][8]
History
Early Eastern Iranic peoples originated in the
Corpus
Inscriptions
Some scholars ascribe certain inscribed objects found in the
Saqqez inscription
An inscription from
Line | Phonetic transliteration | Scythian transcription | English translation |
---|---|---|---|
1 | pa-tì-na-sa-nà tà-pá wá-s₆-na-m₅ XL was-was-ki XXX ár-s-tí-m₅ ś₃-kar-kar (HA) har-s₆-ta₅ LUGAL | patinasana tapa. vasnam: 40 vasaka 30 arzatam šikar. UTA harsta XŠAYAI. | Delivered dish. Value: 40 calves 30 silver šiqlu. And it was presented to the king. |
2 | par-tì-ta₅-wa₅ ki-ś₃-a₄-á KUR-u-pa-ti QU-wa-a₅ | Partitava xšaya DAHYUupati xva- | King Partitavas, the masters of the land pro- |
3 | i₅-pa-ś₂-a-m₂ | ipašyam | -perty |
The king Partitava mentioned in this inscription is the same individual as the Scythian king Pṛtatavah, whose name is attested as Bartatua in Assyrian records and as Protothyēs in Greek records.[11]. However, the hieoglyphic readings used by Harmatta are now outdated. E.g., the name par-tì-ta₅-wa₅ would have to be transliterated as pa+ra/i-lá/í-tí-wa/i₅, if one replaces the older sign readings by the current ones.
Issyk inscription
The
Line | Transliteration | English translation |
---|---|---|
1 | za(ṃ)-ri ko-la(ṃ) mi(ṃ)-vaṃ vaṃ-va pa-zaṃ pa-na de-ka mi(ṃ)-ri-to | The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, |
2 | ña-ka mi pa-zaṃ vaṃ-va va-za(ṃ)-na vaṃ. | then added cooked fresh butter on |
Personal names
The primary sources for Scythian words remain the Scythian toponyms, tribal names, and numerous personal names in the ancient Greek texts and in the Greek inscriptions found in the Greek colonies on the Northern Black Sea Coast. These names suggest that the Sarmatian language had close similarities to modern Ossetian.[13]
Recorded Scythian personal names include:
Name | Attested forms | Notes |
---|---|---|
*Ariyapaiϑah | romanized : Ariapeithēs
|
Composed of:[14][15][16][17] |
*Hiϑāmϑrauša | romanized : Idanthursos
|
Meaning "prospering the ally." Composed of:[18] |
*Hupāyā | romanized : Opoiē
|
Composed of:[15]
|
*Pālaka | romanized : Palakos
|
From an earlier form *Pāδaka after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "tall-legged" and "long-legged." Composed of:[19][20]
|
*Pṛtatavah | romanized : Protothuēs
|
Means "who is mighty in battle." Composed of:[22][23][24]
|
*Pr̥ϑutavā | Composed of:[25][26]
| |
*Šaitafarna | romanized : Saitapharnēs
|
From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaitafarna,[27] possibly meaning "with a bright farna," itself composed of:[28]
|
*Šaϑraka | romanized : Satrakēs
|
From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaϑraka,[27] itself composed of:[29]
Cognate with Ossetian Æхсæртæг (Æxsærtæg)[30] and Æхсæртæггатӕ (Æxsærtæggatæ).[31] |
*Šīraka | romanized : Sirakēs
|
From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[27] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[29]
|
*Skilura
|
romanized : Skilouros
|
From an earlier form *Skiδura after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "sharp" and "victorious."[19] |
*Skula | romanized : Skulēs
|
From the Scythian endonym *Skula, itself a later dialectal form of *Skuδa resulting from a sound change from /δ/ to /l/.[32] |
*Spakāya
|
Akkadian: 𒁹𒅖𒉺𒅗𒀀𒀀, romanized: Išpakāya[33] | Hypocoristic derivation from the word *spaka, meaning "dog."[34][35][16] |
*Spargapis | romanized : Spargapisēs
|
Composed of:[15][16][36][17]
*Spargapis and *Spargapaiϑah are variants of the same name.[37][15][36] |
*Spargapaiϑah | romanized : Spargapeithēs
|
Composed of:[15][36][16][17]
*Spargapaiϑah and *Spargapis are variants of the same name.[37][15][36] |
*Tigratavā | romanized : Tirgataō
|
Means "with the strength of an arrow." Composed of:[38][15]
|
*Taumuriya | romanized : Tomuris
|
Derived from a cognate of Avestan 𐬙𐬀𐬊𐬑𐬨𐬀𐬥 (taoxman) and Old Persian 𐎫𐎢𐎶𐎠 (taumā), meaning "seed," "germ," and "kinship."[15] |
*Uxtamazatā | romanized : Oktamasadēs
|
Means "possessing greatness through his words." Composed of:[15]
|
*Varika | romanized : Orikos
|
Hypocorostic derivation from the word *vari-, meaning "chest armour, armour." Compare with Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (vaⁱri-), 𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬌 (uuari-) "chest armour."[15] |
Tribal names
Recorded Scythian tribal names include:
Name | Attested forms | Notes |
---|---|---|
*Haxāϑrauša | romanized : Agathursoi
|
Means "prospering the friend/socius." Composed of:[18]
|
*Šīraka | romanized : Sirakes
|
From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[27] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[29]
|
*Skuδa[39][40] | Akkadian: 𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀, romanized: Iškuzaya
romanized : Skuthai
|
*Skuδa, the Scythian endonym,[39][40]
From the Proto-Indo-European root skewd-, itself meaning lit. 'shooter, archer', whence also English "shoot".[41] |
*Skula | Later form of *Skuδa resulting from the evolution of Proto-Scythian /δ/ into Scythian /l/.[39] | |
*Paralāta | Cognate with Young Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬜𐬁𐬙𐬀 (Paraδāta), meaning "placed at the front."[16] |
Place names
Some scholars believe that many toponyms and hydronyms of the Russian and Ukrainian steppe have Scythian links. For example,
Recorded Scythian place names include:
Name | Attested forms | Notes |
---|---|---|
*Baurustāna | romanized : Borusthenēs
|
Means "place of beavers." Composed of:[45] |
*Dānu | romanized : Tanais
|
Means "river."[15] |
*Pantikapa | romanized : Pantikapaion
|
Means "fish-path." Composed of:[46] |
*Rahā | romanized : Rha
|
Means "wetness." Compare with Avestan 𐬭𐬀𐬢𐬵𐬁 (raŋhā) and Vedic Sanskrit रसा (rasā́).[47] |
*Varu | romanized : Oaros
|
Means "broad."[48] |
Herodotus' Scythian etymologies
The Greek historian Herodotus provides another source of Scythian; he reports that the Scythians called the Amazons Oiorpata, and explains the name as a compound of oior, meaning "man", and pata, meaning "to kill" (Hist. 4,110).
- Most scholars associate oior "man" with Avestan vīra- "man, hero", Sanskrit vīra-, Latin vir (gen. virī) "man, hero, husband",[49] PIE *wiHrós. Various explanations account for pata "kill":
- Persian pat- "(to) kill", patxuste "killed";[50]
- Sogdian pt- "(to) kill", ptgawsty "killed";[51]
- Ossetian fædyn "cleave", Sanskrit pātayati "fell", PIE *peth₂- "fall".[52]
- Avestan paiti- "lord", Sanskrit páti, PIE *pótis, cf. Lat. potestate (i.e. "man-ruler");[53]
- Ossetian maryn "kill", Pashto mrəl, Sanskrit mārayati, PIE *mer- "die" (confusion of Greek Μ and Π);[54]
- Alternatively, one scholar suggests Iranic aiwa- "one" + warah- "breast",a- (privative) + mazos, "without breast".
Elsewhere Herodotus explains the name of the mythical one-eyed tribe Arimaspoi as a compound of the Scythian words arima, meaning "one", and spu, meaning "eye" (Hist. 4,27).
- Some scholars connect arima "one" with Ossetian ærmæst "only", Avestic airime "quiet", Greek erēmos "empty", PIE *h₁(e)rh₁mo-?, and spu "eye" with Avestic spas- "foretell", Sanskrit spaś-, PIE *speḱ- "see".[56]
- However, Iranic usually expresses "one" and "eye" with words like aiwa- and čašman- (Ossetian īw and cæst).
- Other scholars reject Herodotus' etymology and derive the ethnonym Arimaspoi from Iranic aspa- "horse" instead.[57]
- Or the first part of the name may reflect something like Iranic raiwant- "rich", cf. Ossetian riwæ "rich".[58]
Scythian theonyms
Name | Attested forms | Notes |
---|---|---|
*Tapatī́ | romanized : Tabiti
|
Means “the Burning One” or “the Flaming One.”[59][60] |
*Api | romanized : Api
|
Related to Avestan 𐬀𐬞𐬌 (api), "water."[62] |
*Targī̆tavah | romanized : Targitaos
|
Means "possessing the might of the goddess Tarkā." Composed of:[64]
|
romanized : Artimpasa
|
Composed of:[62]
| |
*Apatura | romanized : Apatouros
|
Means "swift water." Composed of:[65]
|
*Gaiϑāsūra | romanized : Goitosuros
|
Composed of:[16]
|
romanized : Thagimasadas
|
Composed of:
| |
*Lipoxšaya | romanized : Lipoxais
|
From an earlier form *Δipoxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "king of radiance" and "king of heaven." Composed of:[67]
|
*R̥buxšaya | romanized : Arpoxais
|
Means "king of the airspace." Composed of:[68]
|
*Kolaxšaya | romanized : KolaxaisLatin : Colaxes
|
From an earlier form *Koδaxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "axe-wielding king," where the axe also has the meaning of "sceptre," as well as "blacksmith king," in the sense of "ruling king of the lower world." Composed of:[69]
|
Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder's Natural History (AD 77–79) derives the name of the Caucasus from the Scythian kroy-khasis = ice-shining, white with snow (cf. Greek cryos = ice-cold).
Aristophanes
In the comedy works of
Alanian
The Alanian language, as spoken by the
Unlike the Pontic Scythian language, Ossetian did not experience the evolution of the Proto-Scythian sound /d/ to /δ/ and then /l/, although the sound /d/ did evolve into /δ/ at the beginning of Ossetian words.[7]
See also
Notes
- ^ Lubotsky 2002, p. 190.
- ^ Compare L. Zgusta, Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste [The Greek personal names of the Greek cities of the northern Black Sea coast], 1955.
- .
- ^ E.g. Harmatta 1970.[page needed]
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Reichert, 1989.[page needed]
- ^ Novák 2013, p. 11.
- ^ a b c Ivantchik 1999a, p. 156-158.
- ^ a b c d Novák 2013, p. 10.
- ISBN 9781884964985.
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 124.
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 123.
- ^ Harmatta 1992, p. 412.
- doi:10.7557/13.3188.
- ^ Hinz 1975, p. 40.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Schmitt 2003.
- ^ a b c d e f Schmitt 2018a.
- ^ a b c Schmitt 2011.
- ^ a b Schwartz & Manaster Ramer 2019, p. 359-360.
- ^ a b Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 93.
- ^ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 88.
- ^ Ivantchik 1999b, p. 508-509: "Though Madyes himself is not mentioned in Akkadian texts, his father, the Scythian king Par-ta-tu-a, whose identification with Προτοθύης of Herodotus is certain."
- ^ Bukharin 2011, p. 63.
- ^ Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 94.
- ^ Melikov 2016, p. 78-80.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "PROTOTHYES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
- ^ Bukharin 2011.
- ^ a b c d Kullanda 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 273-274.
- ^ a b c Bukharin 2013, p. 270-271.
- ^ Alemany 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Ivantchik 2005, p. 183.
- ^ Ivantchik 2018.
- ^ "Išpakaia [CHIEFTAIN OF THE SCYTHIANS] (RN)". Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus. University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
- ^ Ivantchik 2005, p. 188.
- ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 93–94.
- ^ a b c d Schmitt 2018b.
- ^ a b Hinz 1975, p. 226.
- ISBN 978-0-691-14720-8.
- ^ a b c Tokhtasyev 2005a, p. 68-84.
- ^ a b Tokhtasyev 2005b, p. 296.
- ^ Szemerényi 1980, p. 20-21.
- ^ a b Witczak 1999, p. 52-53.
- ^ M. Vasmer, Untersuchungen über die ältesten Wohnsitze der Slaven. Die Iranier in Südrußland, Leipzig 1923, 74.
- JSTOR 40265408.
- ^ Kullanda 2013, p. 39-41.
- ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2.
- ^ Brunner, C. J. (1986). "ARANG". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
Middle Persian Arang/Arag renders Avestan Raŋhā, which is cognate with the Scythian name Rhâ (*Rahā) transmitted by Ptolemy
- ^ Harmatta 1999, p. 129.
- ^ "Vir – the Latin Dictionary".
- ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
- ISBN 964-5558-06-9.
- ^ L. Zgusta, "Skythisch οἰόρπατα «ἀνδροκτόνοι»", Annali dell’Istituto Universario Orientale di Napoli 1 (1959) pp. 151–156.
- ^ Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 15.
- ^ V.I. Abaev, Osetinskij jazyk i fol’klor, Moscow / Leningrad 1949, vol. 1, 172, 176, 188.
- ^ Hinge 2005, pp. 94–98
- ^ J. Marquart, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte von Eran, Göttingen 1905, 90–92; Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 12; H.H. Schaeder, Iranica. I: Das Auge des Königs, Berlin 1934, 16–19.
- ^ W. Tomaschek, "Kritik der ältesten Nachrichten über den skythischen Norden", Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 116 (1888), 715–780, here: 761; K. Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin 1893, vol. 3, 305–306; R. Grousset, L’empire des steppes, Paris 1941, 37 n. 3; I. Lebedensky, Les Scythes. La civilisation des steppes (VIIe-IIIe siècles av. J.-C.), Paris 2001, 93.
- ^ Hinge 2005, pp. 89–94
- ISBN 978-0-199-28075-9.
- ^ Jones, Lindsay (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 8205–8208.
- ISBN 978-9-004-15496-4.
- ^ a b c Ustinova 1999, p. 67-128.
- ^ Raevskiy 1993, p. 17-18.
- ^ Tokhtasyev 2013.
- ^ Ustinova 1999, p. 29-66.
- ^ Herzfeld, Ernst (1947). Zoroaster and His World. Vol. 2. Princeton University Press. p. 516.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 29-31.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 31-32.
- ^ Bukharin 2013, p. 48-52.
- ^ Donaldson, John William (1844). Varronianus: A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Philological Study of the Latin Language. J. and J. J. Deighton. p. 32.
- ISBN 3-7001-0994-6in Kim, op.cit., 54.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Witczak, K. T. (1999). "Скифский язык: опыт описания" [The Scythian Language: Attempt at Description]. Вопросы языкознания. 5: 50–59. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
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