After suppressing the Trưng sisters in 44 AD, Ma Yuan continued his crackdown on the
Lac Viet resistance and their society. Lac lords who had joined the Trung sisters, who had submitted or surrendered to Ma Yuan would be spared, those who disobeyed were beheaded.[1] Direct imperial government now was imposed on the region for the first time.[2] Some of 20,000 Chinese soldiers had settled in northern Vietnam to help rebuild the Han administration, living along with around 900,000 local people.[3][4] By the second and third century, local sites and artifacts often contain both Yue and Han styles, include Han-style tomb bricks and Dong Son artifacts such as bronze drums.[5] Chopsticks, paper, writing brushes, the concept of household, tomb,... were introduced into indigenous society (presumably included Yue speakers) during the Western Han or Eastern Han era.[6] Although the Yue had adjusted local cultures, the Han Chinese didn't force the locals to adopt Chinese customs. From the Han to the Tang era, Imperial Chinese had supported for the political alliances with the locally based Yue political elite, many of which were powerful and wealthy chieftains. The Chinese court often gave them official positions in order to extract profits from them.[7]
In 157, local leader Chu Đạt in Jiuzhen attacked and killed the Chinese magistrate, then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. The governor of Jiuzhen, Ni Shi, was killed. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels.[8][9]
In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tribute to the Han government.[10]
In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing "tribute" (from the Chinese perspective) to the Han,[11] which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi.[12]
In 178, Wuhu people (烏滸) under Liang Long sparked a revolt against the Han in Hepu and Jiaozhi. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam, Guangxi and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Zhu Juan to deal with the revolt. In June 181 Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed.[13]
Introduced by Indian merchants via sea, by late Han period,
Dâu Temple (circa. 2nd century AD) was the first Buddhist temple in Vietnam.[15] In 177, Shi Xie became the prefect of Jiaozhi province.[16]
In 100,
Cham people in Xianglin (Tượng Lâm) county (near modern-day Huế) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two-year tax respite.[17] In 136 and 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. The governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words."[17]
In 192,
Cham people in Tượng Lâm led by Khu Liên successful revolted against the Han dynasty. Khu Liên found the independent kingdom of Lâm Ấp.[18]
Three Kingdoms era
Sĩ Nhiếp (Shi Xie) was the governor of Jiaozhi at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. When China plunged into civil war, Si Nhiep ruled Jiaozhi as an independent warlord from 187 to 226. He pledged allegiance to Sun Quan forces in 210 and later became a vassal of Eastern Wu
, himself received the title "Marquis of Longbian". In 227, Eastern Wu forces killed his son Shi Hui (士徽), ending the Shi rule of Jiaozhi.
Han style funerary house model found in Bỉm Sơn, Thanh Hóa. 1st-3rd century AD
In 263, Lu Hung (呂興), a prefecture in Jiaozhou, gained supports from local people and soldiers, murdered Wu administrators Sun Hsu (孫諝) and Teng Hsun (鄧荀), then sent envoys to
Tao Huang contacted with Luong Ky, a local commander collaborating with the Jin and convinced him to side with the Wu, enabled the Wu army to recapture Jiaozhi's ports and main towns in 271. Fighting continued in the countryside until 280, when Jin destroyed Wu, reunifying China.[22] The war devastated the region as number of households in northern Vietnam fell from 64,700 in 140 AD to around 25,600 by the Western Jin dynasty period.[25][26]
In the early period of Jin dynasty, the imperial court favored the southern trade networks with prosperity kingdoms of Funan and Lâm Ấp. Along with this brief peacetime "boom" in the southern trade, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed some autonomy from China until
the 320s.
Liu Song asking for the appointment of Prefect of Jiao, which was declined.[28]
During the Jin dynasty and
Six dynasties period of China, the Li-Lao people extended their territories right along the south coast of modern Guangdong and Guangxi, in a swath of land to the east of the Red River Delta and south and west of the Pearl River Delta, occupied the overland roads between Guangzhou and Jiaozhou.[29] The people of Li-Lao country put anyone traveled through their territories in dangers.[30]
Rebellions broke out in Jiaozhou from 468 to 485, and in 506 and 515 under Liang dynasty.[27]
In 541,
Lý Bôn, a leader of the Li clan which had Sinitic ancestry, revolted against the Liang. In 544 he defeated the Liang and proclaimed himself Emperor of Nán Yuè with reign era Thiên-đức.[31] He named the new kingdom "Vạn Xuân" (萬春, "Eternal Spring"). Jiaozhou briefly became independence from the Chinese dynasties. In 545, Chen Baxian led the Liang army attack Jiaozhou, forced Lý Bôn fled west into the mountains above the Red River, where he was killed by Lao highlanders in 548.[32]
Culture
"...In the two districts of Me Linh in Jiaozhi and Do Long in Jiuzhen, when an elder brother dies, a younger brother marries his widow; this has been going on for generations, thereby becoming an established custom, so district officials give in and allow it, not being able to stop it. In Rinan Prefecture, men and women go naked without shame. In short, it can be said that these people are on the same level as bugs."[33]
Xue Zong, Custom of the South (231)
Due to the political instability of Chinese civilization from 3rd to 6th century, much of the Vietnamese countryside was indirectly ruled, and indigenous Yue customs and relations between the sexes persisted.
Moluccas. Buddhists from India, known to the Chinese as Hu, had arrived in Vietnam in AD 100s. Buddhism flourished within the region under Shi Xie. In contrast to Confucianism, Buddhism had deep roots in the Vietnamese psyche.[36] Persian and Sogdian merchants also traveled to the Vietnamese coast;[37] the region was the home of Kang Senghui, a Sogdian Buddhist monk who translated Buddhist texts into Chinese.[38]
Masanari, Nishimura (2005). "Settlement patterns on the Red River plain from the late prehistoric period to the 10th century AD". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 25: 99–107.
Aymonier, Etienne (1893). The History of Tchampa (the Cyamba of Marco Polo, Now Annam Or Cochin-China). Oriental University Institute.
Beaujard, Philippe (2019), The Worlds of the Indian Ocean: Volume 1, From the Fourth Millennium BCE to the Sixth Century CE: A Global History, Cambridge University Press,
Churchman, Michael (2011), ""The People in Between": The Li and the Lao from the Han to the Sui", in Li, Tana; Anderson, James A. (eds.), The Tongking Gulf Through History, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 67–86,
Li, Tana (2011), "Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) in the Han Period Tongking Gulf", in Li, Tana; Anderson, James A. (eds.), The Tongking Gulf Through History, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 39–53,
Loewe, Michael (1986), "The conduct of government and the issues at stake (A.D. 57-167)", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 291–316
Miksic, John Norman; Yian, Goh Geok (2016). Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge.
Schafer, Edward Hetzel (1967), The Vermilion Bird: T'ang Images of the South, Los Angeles: University of California Press
Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). The Birth of the Vietnam. University of California Press.
Yu, Ying-shih (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–463
Further reading
Tucker, Spencer (1999). Vietnam. University of Kentucky Press.
