Second Industrial Revolution
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The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution,
Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as
The Second Industrial Revolution is followed by the
Overview
The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States, but also in France, the
The concept was introduced by
Landes (2003) stresses the importance of new technologies, especially, the
One author has called the period from 1867 to 1914 during which most of the great innovations were developed "The Age of Synergy" since the inventions and innovations were engineering and science-based.[6]
Industry and technology
A synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads allowed cheap transportation of materials and products, which in turn led to cheap rails to build more roads. Railroads also benefited from cheap coal for their steam locomotives. This synergy led to the laying of 75,000 miles of track in the U.S. in the 1880s, the largest amount anywhere in world history.[7]
Iron
The hot blast technique, in which the hot flue gas from a blast furnace is used to preheat combustion air blown into a blast furnace, was invented and patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 at Wilsontown Ironworks in Scotland. Hot blast was the single most important advance in fuel efficiency of the blast furnace as it greatly reduced the fuel consumption for making pig iron, and was one of the most important technologies developed during the Industrial Revolution.[8] Falling costs for producing wrought iron coincided with the emergence of the railway in the 1830s.
The early technique of hot blast used iron for the regenerative heating medium. Iron caused problems with expansion and contraction, which stressed the iron and caused failure. Edward Alfred Cowper developed the Cowper stove in 1857.[9] This stove used firebrick as a storage medium, solving the expansion and cracking problem. The Cowper stove was also capable of producing high heat, which resulted in very high throughput of blast furnaces. The Cowper stove is still used in today's blast furnaces.
With the greatly reduced cost of producing pig iron with coke using hot blast, demand grew dramatically and so did the size of blast furnaces.[10][11]
Steel
The
The "acid" Bessemer process had a serious limitation in that it required relatively scarce
The next great advance in steel making was the
French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin was the first to take out a license for the Siemens furnace and apply it to the production of steel in 1865. The Siemens–Martin process complemented rather than replaced the Bessemer process. Its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which would cause the steel to become brittle), it was easier to control, and that it permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap steel, lowering steel production costs and recycling an otherwise troublesome waste material. It became the leading steel making process by the early 20th century.
The availability of cheap steel allowed building larger bridges, railroads, skyscrapers, and ships.
Rail
The increase in steel production from the 1860s meant that railways could finally be made from steel at a competitive cost. Being a much more durable material, steel steadily replaced iron as the standard for railway rail, and due to its greater strength, longer lengths of rails could now be rolled. Wrought iron was soft and contained flaws caused by included dross. Iron rails could also not support heavy locomotives and were damaged by hammer blow. The first to make durable rails of steel rather than wrought iron was Robert Forester Mushet at the Darkhill Ironworks, Gloucestershire in 1857.
The first of Mushet's steel rails was sent to
The first commercially available steel rails in the US were manufactured in 1867 at the Cambria Iron Works in Johnstown, Pennsylvania.[17]
Steel rails lasted over ten times longer than did iron,[18] and with the falling cost of steel, heavier weight rails were used. This allowed the use of more powerful locomotives, which could pull longer trains, and longer rail cars, all of which greatly increased the productivity of railroads.[19] Rail became the dominant form of transport infrastructure throughout the industrialized world,[20] producing a steady decrease in the cost of shipping seen for the rest of the century.[18]
Electrification
The theoretical and practical basis for the harnessing of electric power was laid by the scientist and experimentalist Michael Faraday. Through his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current, Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics.[21][22] His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices were the foundation of the practical use of electricity in technology.
In 1881,
The first modern power station in the world was built by the English
Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of electro-chemicals, such as aluminium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium.[32]
Machine tools
The use of machine tools began with the onset of the First Industrial Revolution. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron—and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. One of the first machine tools was John Wilkinson's boring machine, that bored a precise hole in James Watt's first steam engine in 1774. Advances in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth. Standardization of screw threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity.
In 1841, Joseph Whitworth created a design that, through its adoption by many British railway companies, became the world's first national machine tool standard called British Standard Whitworth.[33] During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards.
The importance of
Paper making
The first paper making machine was the
It was in the 1840s, that
Petroleum
The
Cable tool drilling was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which was used for evaporation of the brine. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828.[41]
Although there were many efforts in the mid-19th century to drill for oil, Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is considered the first "modern oil well".[42] Drake's well touched off a major boom in oil production in the United States.[43] Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in the U. S.[44] The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters.[32][45] Similar developments around Baku fed the European market.
Kerosene lighting was much more efficient and less expensive than vegetable oils, tallow and whale oil. Although town gas lighting was available in some cities, kerosene produced a brighter light until the invention of the gas mantle. Both were replaced by electricity for street lighting following the 1890s and for households during the 1920s. Gasoline was an unwanted byproduct of oil refining until automobiles were mass-produced after 1914, and gasoline shortages appeared during World War I. The invention of the Burton process for thermal cracking doubled the yield of gasoline, which helped alleviate the shortages.[45]
Chemical
After the discovery of mauveine, many new
Maritime technology
This era saw the birth of the modern ship as disparate technological advances came together.
The
The first seagoing iron steamboat was built by Horseley Ironworks and named the Aaron Manby. It also used an innovative oscillating engine for power. The boat was built at Tipton using temporary bolts, disassembled for transportation to London, and reassembled on the Thames in 1822, this time using permanent rivets.
Other technological developments followed, including the invention of the surface condenser, which allowed boilers to run on purified water rather than salt water, eliminating the need to stop to clean them on long sea journeys. The Great Western[48] ,[49][50] built by engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was the longest ship in the world at 236 ft (72 m) with a 250-foot (76 m) keel and was the first to prove that transatlantic steamship services were viable. The ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel added bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain the keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered paddle wheels, the ship carried four masts for sails.
Brunel followed this up with the Great Britain, launched in 1843 and considered the first modern ship built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel.[51] Brunel's vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry.
Highly efficient multiple expansion steam engines began being used on ships, allowing them to carry less coal than freight.[52] The oscillating engine was first built by Aaron Manby and Joseph Maudslay in the 1820s as a type of direct-acting engine that was designed to achieve further reductions in engine size and weight. Oscillating engines had the piston rods connected directly to the crankshaft, dispensing with the need for connecting rods. To achieve this aim, the engine cylinders were not immobile as in most engines, but secured in the middle by trunnions which allowed the cylinders themselves to pivot back and forth as the crankshaft rotated, hence the term oscillating.
It was
The revolution in naval design led to the first modern
Rubber
The
Bicycles
The modern bicycle was designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson in 1876, although it was John Kemp Starley who produced the first commercially successful safety bicycle a few years later.[57] Its popularity soon grew, causing the bike boom of the 1890s.
Road networks improved greatly in the period, using the Macadam method pioneered by Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam, and hard surfaced roads were built around the time of the bicycle craze of the 1890s. Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley in 1901.[58]
Automobile
German inventor
Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen) in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history.
Applied science
Applied science opened many opportunities. By the middle of the 19th century there was a scientific understanding of chemistry and a fundamental understanding of thermodynamics and by the last quarter of the century both of these sciences were near their present-day basic form. Thermodynamic principles were used in the development of physical chemistry. Understanding chemistry greatly aided the development of basic inorganic chemical manufacturing and the aniline dye industries.
The science of metallurgy was advanced through the work of Henry Clifton Sorby and others. Sorby pioneered the study of iron and steel under microscope, which paved the way for a scientific understanding of metal and the mass-production of steel. In 1863 he used etching with acid to study the microscopic structure of metals and was the first to understand that a small but precise quantity of carbon gave steel its strength.[63] This paved the way for Henry Bessemer and Robert Forester Mushet to develop the method for mass-producing steel.
Other processes were developed for purifying various elements such as
The work of
The science of
Scottish scientist
Maxwell himself developed the first durable
Fertilizer
The discovery of coprolites in commercial quantities in East Anglia, led Fisons and Edward Packard to develop one of the first large-scale commercial fertilizer plants at Bramford, and Snape in the 1850s. By the 1870s superphosphates produced in those factories, were being shipped around the world from the port at Ipswich.[72][73]
The Birkeland–Eyde process was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist Kristian Birkeland along with his business partner Sam Eyde in 1903,[74] but was soon replaced by the much more efficient Haber process,[75] developed by the
Engines and turbines
The steam turbine was developed by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. His first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity.[77] The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare.[78] By the time of Parson's death, his turbine had been adopted for all major world power stations.[79] Unlike earlier steam engines, the turbine produced rotary power rather than reciprocating power which required a crank and heavy flywheel. The large number of stages of the turbine allowed for high efficiency and reduced size by 90%. The turbine's first application was in shipping followed by electric generation in 1903.
The first widely used internal combustion engine was the Otto type of 1876. From the 1880s until electrification it was successful in small shops because small steam engines were inefficient and required too much operator attention.[6] The Otto engine soon began being used to power automobiles, and remains as today's common gasoline engine.
The diesel engine was independently designed by Rudolf Diesel and Herbert Akroyd Stuart in the 1890s using thermodynamic principles with the specific intention of being highly efficient. It took several years to perfect and become popular, but found application in shipping before powering locomotives. It remains the world's most efficient prime mover.[6]
Telecommunications
The first commercial
The rapid expansion of telegraph networks took place throughout the century, with the first
The telephone was patented in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell, and like the early telegraph, it was used mainly to speed business transactions.[83]
As mentioned above, one of the most important scientific advancements in all of history was the unification of light, electricity and magnetism through Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. A scientific understanding of electricity was necessary for the development of efficient electric generators, motors and transformers. David Edward Hughes and Heinrich Hertz both demonstrated and confirmed the phenomenon of electromagnetic waves that had been predicted by Maxwell.[6]
It was Italian inventor
The key development of the
Modern business management
Railroads are credited with creating the modern
Railroads involved complex operations and employed extremely large amounts of capital and ran a more complicated business compared to anything previous. Consequently, they needed better ways to track costs. For example, to calculate rates they needed to know the cost of a ton-mile of freight. They also needed to keep track of cars, which could go missing for months at a time. This led to what was called "railroad accounting", which was later adopted by steel and other industries, and eventually became modern accounting.[90]
Later in the Second Industrial Revolution,
Taylor's core principles included:[citation needed]
- replacing rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks
- scientifically selecting, training, and developing each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves
- providing "detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task"
- dividing work nearly equally between managers and workers, such that the managers apply scientific-management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks
Socio-economic impacts
The period from 1870 to 1890 saw the greatest increase in economic growth in such a short period as ever in previous history. Living standards improved significantly in the newly industrialized countries as the prices of goods fell dramatically due to the increases in
"The economic changes that have occurred during the last quarter of a century -or during the present generation of living men- have unquestionably been more important and more varied than during any period of the world's history".[52]
Crop failures no longer resulted in starvation in areas connected to large markets through transport infrastructure.[52]
Massive improvements in public health and sanitation resulted from
By 1870 the work done by steam engines exceeded that done by animal and human power. Horses and mules remained important in agriculture until the development of the internal combustion tractor near the end of the Second Industrial Revolution.[91]
Improvements in steam efficiency, like
By 1890 there was an international telegraph network allowing orders to be placed by merchants in England or the US to suppliers in India and China for goods to be transported in efficient new steamships. This, plus the opening of the Suez Canal, led to the decline of the great warehousing districts in London and elsewhere, and the elimination of many middlemen.[52]
The tremendous growth in productivity, transportation networks, industrial production and agricultural output lowered the prices of almost all goods. This led to many business failures and periods that were called depressions that occurred as the world economy actually grew.
The factory system centralized production in separate buildings funded and directed by specialists (as opposed to work at home). The division of labor made both unskilled and skilled labor more productive, and led to a rapid growth of population in industrial centers. The shift away from agriculture toward industry had occurred in Britain by the 1730s, when the percentage of the working population engaged in agriculture fell below 50%, a development that would only happen elsewhere (the Low Countries) in the 1830s and '40s. By 1890, the figure had fallen to under 10% and the vast majority of the British population was urbanized. This milestone was reached by the Low Countries and the US in the 1950s.[93]
Like the first industrial revolution, the second supported population growth and saw most governments protect their national economies with tariffs. Britain retained its belief in free trade throughout this period. The wide-ranging social impact of both revolutions included the remaking of the working class as new technologies appeared. The changes resulted in the creation of a larger, increasingly professional, middle class, the decline of child labor and the dramatic growth of a consumer-based, material culture.[94]
By 1900, the leaders in industrial production was Britain with 24% of the world total, followed by the US (19%), Germany (13%), Russia (9%) and France (7%). Europe together accounted for 62%.[95]
The great inventions and innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution are part of our modern life. They continued to be drivers of the economy until after WWII. Major innovations occurred in the post-war era, some of which are: computers, semiconductors, the fiber optic network and the Internet, cellular telephones,
United Kingdom
New products and services were introduced which greatly increased international trade. Improvements in steam engine design and the wide availability of cheap steel meant that slow, sailing ships were replaced with faster steamship, which could handle more trade with smaller crews. The chemical industries also moved to the forefront. Britain invested less in technological research than the U.S. and Germany, which caught up.
The development of more intricate and efficient machines along with mass production techniques (after 1910) greatly expanded output and lowered production costs. As a result, production often exceeded domestic demand. Among the new conditions, more markedly evident in Britain, the forerunner of Europe's industrial states, were the long-term effects of the severe Long Depression of 1873–1896, which had followed fifteen years of great economic instability. Businesses in practically every industry suffered from lengthy periods of low – and falling – profit rates and price deflation after 1873.
United States
The U.S. had its highest economic growth rate in the last two decades of the Second Industrial Revolution;[98] however, population growth slowed while productivity growth peaked around the mid 20th century. The Gilded Age in America was based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads and coal mining. The iconic event was the opening of the First transcontinental railroad in 1869, providing six-day service between the East Coast and San Francisco.[99]
During the Gilded Age, American railroad mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and tripled again by 1920, opening new areas to commercial farming, creating a truly national marketplace and inspiring a boom in coal mining and steel production. The voracious appetite for capital of the great trunk railroads facilitated the consolidation of the nation's financial market in
Increased mechanization of industry and improvements to worker efficiency, increased the productivity of factories while undercutting the need for skilled labor. Mechanical innovations such as batch and continuous processing began to become much more prominent in factories. This mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under the direction of skilled foremen and engineers. In some cases, the advancement of such mechanization substituted for low-skilled workers altogether. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew[101] Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise. Together with rapid growth of small business, a new middle class was rapidly growing, especially in northern cities.[102]
Employment distribution
In the early 1900s there was a disparity between the levels of employment seen in the northern and southern United States. On average, states in the North had both a higher population, and a higher rate of employment than states in the South. The higher rate of employment is easily seen by considering the 1909 rates of employment compared to the populations of each state in the 1910 census. This difference was most notable in the states with the largest populations, such as New York and Pennsylvania. Each of these states had roughly 5 percent more of the total US workforce than would be expected given their populations. Conversely, the states in the South with the best actual rates of employment, North Carolina and Georgia, had roughly 2 percent less of the workforce than one would expect from their population. When the averages of all southern states and all northern states are taken, the trend holds with the North over-performing by about 2 percent, and the South under-performing by about 1 percent.[103]
Germany
The
By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight firms produced almost 90 percent of the world supply of dyestuffs, and sold about 80 percent of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals and electrochemical. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers, leading Chandler to call the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".[105] There were many spin offs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.[106]
Belgium
Belgium during the Belle Époque showed the value of the railways for speeding the Second Industrial Revolution. After 1830, when it broke away from the Netherlands and became a new nation, it decided to stimulate industry. It planned and funded a simple cruciform system that connected major cities, ports and mining areas, and linked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. The system was soundly built along British lines, so that profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place.[107]
Alternative uses
There have been other times that have been called "second industrial revolution". Industrial revolutions may be renumbered by taking earlier developments, such as the rise of medieval technology in the 12th century, or of ancient Chinese technology during the Tang dynasty, or of ancient Roman technology, as first. "Second industrial revolution" has been used in the popular press and by technologists or industrialists to refer to the changes following the spread of new technology after World War I.
Excitement and debate over the dangers and benefits of the
See also
in alphabetical order
- British Agricultural Revolution
- Capitalism in the nineteenth century
- Chemical Revolution
- Digital Revolution, also known as the Third Industrial Revolution, late 1990s until present
- Fourth Industrial Revolution
- Green Revolution
- Industrial Revolution
- Information Revolution
- Transport Revolution
- Nanotechnology
- Kondratiev wave
- List of steel producers
- Machine Age
- Neolithic Revolution
- Productivity improving technologies (historical)
- Scientific Revolution
- Suez Canal
Economic history of selected countries:
Notes
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Compare:
Chandler, Alfred D. Jr. (1993). The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0674940529. Retrieved 2017-06-29.
[...] the telegraph companies used the railroad for their rights-of-way, and the railroad used the services of the telegraph to coordinate the flow of trains and traffic. In fact, many of the first telegraph companies were subsidiaries of railroads, formed to carry out this essential operating service.
- ISBN 0674417682. Retrieved 2017-06-29.
[...] American railroad accounting overstated operating costs and understated capital consumption.[...] The basic innovations in financial and capital accounting appeared in the 1850s in response to specific needs and were perfected in the years after the Civil War. Innovations in a third type of accounting – cost accounting – came more slowly.
- doi:10.1016/j.strueco.2003.10.003. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2010-10-11. Retrieved 2019-01-11.
- ISBN 0-543-72474-3.
RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.
- JSTOR 40572192.
- ^ Hull (1996)
- ^ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p. 149, based on Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980," Journal of European Economic History (1982) v. 11
- ]This link is to entire on line book.
- ^ Data from Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980," Journal of European Economic History (1982) v. 11.
- JSTOR 4226974.
- ^ Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It in the World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863–1869 (2000)
- ^ Edward C. Kirkland, Industry Comes of Age, Business, Labor, and Public Policy 1860–1897 (1961)
- ^ Daniel Hovey Calhoun, The American Civil Engineer: Origins and Conflicts (1960)
- ^ Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (1983)
- ^ Steuart, William M. Abstract of the Census of Manufactures, 1914 .. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1917.
- ^ Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010)
- ^ Chandler (1990) p 474-5
- ^ Carsten Burhop, "Pharmaceutical Research in Wilhelmine Germany: the Case of E. Merck," Business History Review. Volume: 83. Issue: 3. 2009. pp 475+. in ProQuest
- ^ Patrick O’Brien, Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830–1914 (1983)
References
- Atkeson, Andrew and Patrick J. Kehoe. "Modeling the Transition to a New Economy: Lessons from Two Technological Revolutions," American Economic Review, March 2007, Vol. 97 Issue 1, pp 64–88 in EBSCO
- Appleby, Joyce Oldham. The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism (2010) excerpt and text search
- Beaudreau, Bernard C. The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes: How the Second Industrial Revolution Passed Great Britain (2006)
- ISBN 0-253-20128-4.
- Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe (2 vol. 2010), covers 1700 to present
- Chandler, Jr., Alfred D. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (1990).
- Chant, Colin, ed. Science, Technology and Everyday Life, 1870–1950 (1989) emphasis on Britain
- ISBN 1-56584-561-7.
- Hull, James O. "From Rostow to Chandler to You: How revolutionary was the second industrial revolution?" Journal of European Economic History, Spring 1996, Vol. 25 Issue 1, pp. 191–208
- Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262081986.
- Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997)
- Kranzberg, Melvin; Carroll W. Pursell Jr (1967). Technology in Western Civilization (2 vols. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 0-521-53402-X.
- Licht, Walter. Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (1995)
- Mokyr, Joel The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914 (1998)
- Mokyr, Joel. The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain 1700–1850 (2010)
- Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920 (2 vol. 2007)
- Roberts, Wayne. "Toronto Metal Workers and the Second Industrial Revolution, 1889–1914," Labour / Le Travail, Autumn 1980, Vol. 6, pp 49–72
- Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916). English and American Tool Builders. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0917914737).
- Smil, Vaclav. Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact
- White, Richard C. (2017). The Republic for Which It Stands. Oxford University Press.
External links
- Media related to Industrial revolution at Wikimedia Commons