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Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
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Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
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Macedonian Empire | (330–323 BC) | |||||||||||||
| Maurya Empire | (321–184 BC) | |||||||||||||
| Seleucid India | (312–303 BC) | |||||||||||||
| Sangam period | (c. 600 BC – c. 300 AD) | |||||||||||||
| Pandya Empire | (c. 300 BC – AD 1345) | |||||||||||||
| Chera Kingdom | (c. 300 BC – AD 1102) | |||||||||||||
| Chola Empire | (c. 300 BC – AD 1279) | |||||||||||||
| Pallava Empire | (c. 250 AD – AD 800) | |||||||||||||
| Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire | (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500) | |||||||||||||
| Parthian Empire | (247 BC – AD 224) |
| Ghaznavid Dynasty | (977–1186) |
| Ghurid Dynasty | (1170–1206) |
| Delhi Sultanate | (1206–1526) |
| – Mamluk Sultanate | (1206–1290) |
| – Khalji Sultanate | (1290–1320) |
| – Tughlaq Sultanate | (1320–1414) |
| – Sayyid Sultanate | (1414–1451) |
| – Lodi Sultanate | (1451–1526) |
| Ahom Kingdom | (1228–1826) |
| Chitradurga Kingdom | (1300–1779) |
| Reddy Kingdom | (1325–1448) |
| Vijayanagara Empire | (1336–1646) |
| Bengal Sultanate | (1352–1576) |
| Garhwal Kingdom | (1358–1803) |
| Mysore Kingdom | (1399–1947) |
| Gajapati Empire | (1434–1541) |
| Ladakh Kingdom | (1470–1842) |
| Deccan Sultanates | (1490–1596) |
| – Ahmadnagar Sultanate | (1490–1636) |
| – Berar Sultanate | (1490–1574) |
| – Bidar Sultanate | (1492–1619) |
| – Bijapur Sultanate | (1492–1686) |
| – Golkonda Sultanate | (1518–1687) |
| Keladi Kingdom | (1499–1763) |
| Koch Kingdom | (1515–1947) |
| Portuguese India | (1510–1961) |
| Dutch India | (1605–1825) |
| Danish India | (1620–1869) |
| French India | (1759–1954) |
| Company Raj | (1757–1858) |
| British Raj | (1858–1947) |
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The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the
 | This section contains
Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.PaleolithicMain article:
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.[27][30] Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.[30] Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.[30][28] According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:
According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:
Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher, states:
Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,[34] although this interpretation is disputed.[35][36] The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.[37]
According to Tim Dyson:
NeolithicBeluchistan, Pakistan Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[2][38] According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:[39]
Bronze Age (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)Indus Valley CivilisationMain article: Indus Valley Civilisation
See also: List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE.[citation needed] The Indus Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive,[40] and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.[41] The civilisation was primarily centered in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India. Great Bath , showing the surrounding urban layout..jpg)  Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.[43] The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage system, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an Indus script, the earliest of the ancient Indian scripts, which is presently undeciphered.[44] This is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation uncertain.[45]  After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.[46] Ochre Coloured Pottery cultureSinauli "chariot", photograph of the Archaeological Survey of India.[47] During 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlement with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.[48] Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)See also: Iron Age in India
Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)See also: Indo-Aryan peoples and Indo-Aryan migrations
Starting ca. 1900 BCE, waves of migration.[49][50] The Vedic period is the period when the Vedas were composed, the liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.[51]
The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.[52] The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE,[53][54] contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. Vedic society Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Atharva Veda.[56] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.[57]
Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE,[58][59] in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent.[60] At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.[61] The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.[62][63] At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterized both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India,[64] but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure.[65] During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).[66] JanapadasMain article: Janapada
The The Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India.[70] When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.[70] The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in the Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE,[62] is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.[70][71]
During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Aruni, and Gārgī Vāchaknavī.[72] The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas , across Northern India.
Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE) The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the Śramaṇa movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"[note 1] started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.[73] The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.[74] The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[75] with new states arising after 500 BCE.[76][77] It was influenced by the Vedic culture,[78] but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.[75] It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".[79] In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.[73] Buddhism and JainismMain articles: Upanishads and Śramaṇa
Further information: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, History of Jainism, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy
Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements Gautama Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads,[80][81][82] which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism, and are also known as the Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[83] The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.[86] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement.[87] Sanskrit epicsMain articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana
See also: List of historic Indian texts and List of Hindu texts
Battle of Kurukshetra .The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period.[88] The Mahabharata remains the longest single poem in the world.[89] Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognize that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.[90] The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.[90][91] MahajanapadasMain article: Mahajanapadas
Indo-Gangetic plains .The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of the Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, and Vatsa. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.[94]
Early "republics" or Licchavis.[97]
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries, a system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts.[98][99] The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.[94]
Early Magadha dynastiesMain articles: Magadha and Greater Magadha
Maghada dynasties Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE, on the Tomb of Xerxes I .Magadha formed one of the sixteen Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
Early sources, from the Buddhist Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha.[102] The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty (c. 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons).
Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaignMain article: Nanda Empire
See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
The Shishunaga predecessors to create the first great empire of north India.[104] To achieve this objective they built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates).[105][106]
Maurya EmpireMain article: Maurya Empire
Maurya Empire Ashokan pillar at Vaishali , 3rd century BCE.The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India. The Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I, founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.[109] Lomas Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves , c. 250 BCE.Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE.[110] His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.[109] The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.[110] Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[111] After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.[citation needed] Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.[112] The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of Northern Black Polished Ware. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.[113] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.[114] During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.[115] Sangam periodMain articles: Sangam period, Sources of ancient Tamil history, Sangam literature, and Five Great Epics
five great epics of Tamil literature.[116] During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty, and the Pandya dynasty ruled parts of southern India.[117] The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.[118] Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.[119] Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE)Main article:
Classical India
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.[126] The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[127] During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.[128][129] Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)Shunga EmpireMain article: Shunga Empire
Shunga Empire Ancient vina .jpg) Royal family, 1st century B.C. West Bengal. The Shungas originated from Besnagar.[130]
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura .
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.
Satavahana EmpireMain article:
Satavahana Empire Satavahana Empire Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi , testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.The Śātavāhanas were based from Mauryan dynasty , but declared independence with its decline.
The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.[133]
Trade and travels to IndiaFurther information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
 The Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea .
Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants.[137] Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE.[138] Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.[139] Kushan EmpireMain article: Kushan Empire
Kushan Empire Mathura art , 2nd century CE.The Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan,[143] and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.[144]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new said about Kanishka:
The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.[148] The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax Kushana .
By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.[149][150] Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)Gupta EmpireMain article: Gupta Empire
Further information:
Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra Gupta Empire  The Gupta Empire around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.  The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting. The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Bamiyan.[155] However, much of the southern India including Deccan were largely unaffected by these events.[156][157]
Vakataka EmpireMain article:
Vakataka Empire The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty .
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.[158][159]
Kamarupa KingdomMain article:
Kamarupa Kingdom  Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[162]
Ruled by three dynasties Kamata kingdom.[164]
Pallava EmpireMain article:
Vastu Shastra.[166]
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.[167]
Kadamba EmpireMain article:
Kadamba Empire Doddagaddavalli .Kadambas originated from Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal ).
Empire of HarshaMain articles: Harsha and Pushyabhuti dynasty
.
 After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.[169] At the height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.[170] The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors. Early medieval period (mid 6th c.–1200 CE)Main articles: Medieval India, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent, and Tripartite Struggle
Early Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[176] This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
In the 7th century CE, Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism.[186]
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Rani ki vav[189] in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat ) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.
The Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.[191][192][193]
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple , as well as being patrons of art and literature.
Chalukya EmpireMain article:
Chalukya Empire The Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.
Rashtrakuta EmpireMain article: Rashtrakuta Empire
Founded by The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[198] Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.[195][199] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.[200] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.[201] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.[195]
Gurjara-Pratihara EmpireMain article:
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.
By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Tomaras of Haryana, the Chauhans of Rajputana,[204] and the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal.[citation needed ]
Gahadavala dynastyMain article: Gahadavala dynasty
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi.[206]
Khayaravala dynastyMain article: Khayaravala dynasty The Khayaravala dynasty, ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Pala EmpireNalanda , a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193 CE.Main article: Pala Empire
The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.[208][209][210] It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.[211] The Palas were followers of the Tantric schools of Buddhism,[212] they also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[213] The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.[213]
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. CholasMain article: Chola dynasty
Rajendra Chola , c. 1030 CE.Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century CE and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.[221] Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.[222] Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[223] Mahabharatha, Sangam literature(500 BCE to the 300 CE[226])and Various books. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late 100 BCE to 100 CE.[citation needed ] Hence, making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India.
Western Chalukya EmpireMain article: Western Chalukya Empire
The Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.[228]
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.[230][231]
Late medieval period (c. 1200–1526 CE)Main article: Medieval India
See also:
Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, Delhi SultanateMain article: Delhi Sultanate
 The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Pashtun origins.[243] It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century.[244] In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.[245] The subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.[244]
The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240). While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim, Indic muslim and Pashtun muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.[246] However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.[247] The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.[248] By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,[249] the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[248] A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[250] The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.[251] The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Lodi dynasty , it was but a shadow of the former.
Vijayanagara EmpireMain article: Vijayanagara Empire
 The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[255]
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.[256][257]
The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.
The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva.[274] Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.[275] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.[276]
Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.[278]
Other kingdomsMain articles: Guhila dynasty and Kingdom of Mewar
For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[284]
In the north, the Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.[287]
In the south, the Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.In the East, the The and disintegration into petty kingdoms.Bhakti movement and SikhismMain articles:
Buddhism in India, and Sikhism See also: History of Sikhism
Sikh Guru Gobind Singh .The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[299] and later revolutionised in Sikhism.[300] It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[299] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[301]
Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)The Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.[313]
Mughal EmpireMain article: Mughal Empire
See also: Bengal Subah, Muslin trade in Bengal, Mughal architecture, Army of the Mughal Empire, Mughal clothing, and Mughal painting
Mughal Empire UNESCO World Heritage Site declaration, 1983.[314] In 1526, maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture .
Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627).[316] Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra. It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites
The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of  The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara,[333] and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.[334]
Maratha EmpireMain article: Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune , the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818.The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji.[335] However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa (chief minister) Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".[336]
In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.[340] The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.[341]
The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[345]
Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory.[346] The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–1818).
Sikh EmpireMain article: Sikh Empire
See also: Sikh architecture and Sikh Khalsa Army
The Punjab region, from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839).[citation needed ]
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his Afghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.[348][349]
At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
Other kingdoms The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the finalising of treaty of Gajendragad, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used the Mysorean rockets. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799) .
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed.[350] However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassels of the British. Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798. The In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Jodhpur State .
After the fall of the Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.
After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.[357] Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.[358] European explorationMain article: Colonial India
 In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under annexed by India in 1961.[360]
The next to arrive Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.[361][362]
The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the Chandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.[citation needed ]
East India Company rule in IndiaMain articles: East India Company and Company rule in India
India under East India Company rule  India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink.  India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories The River Ganges delta. During this time other companies established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.
The company's victory under Sutlej River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.[363]
The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, Berar was annexed along with the state of Oudh two years later.[citation needed ]
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule.[364] The most important such support came from the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes.[364] In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.[364] When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.[365] In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor." Indian indenture systemMain article: Indian indenture system
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labor for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large Indo-African populations.
Late modern and contemporary period (c. 1857 CE – 1947 CE)Rebellion of 1857 and its consequencesMain article: Indian Rebellion of 1857
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group.[368]
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Princely states, but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.[370]
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.[371]
British Raj (1858–1947)Main article: British Raj
British Raj UNESCO World Heritage Site After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.[373] The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.[374] Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.[375]
In 1905, All India Muslim League in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.[377] Sikhs founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920.[378] However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.[379]
Indian RenaissanceMain articles:
Bengali Renaissance
The British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[380] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."[381]
During this period, Bengal witnessed an caste system, and religion. One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.[382] It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
FaminesMain articles: Famine in India and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule
See also: Demographics of India
During famines. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,[383] included the Great Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died,[384] the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people died,[385][386] the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died,[383] and the Bengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.[387] The Third plague pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.[388] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750,[389] had reached 389 million by 1941.[390]
World War IMain article: Indian Army during World War I
During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.[391] The Army saw early action on the Western Front at the First Battle of Ypres. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.[392] Indian Army and North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security obligations.
One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,[393] and another 67,000 were wounded.[394] The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate. World War IIMain article: India in World War II
China Burma India Theatre .
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma . Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.
The Indian National Congress denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities. Provisional Government of Free India (or Azad Hind), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.[398][399]
By 1942, neighbouring Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",[400] with most sources asserting that wartime colonial policies exacerbated the crisis.[401] Indian independence movement (1885–1947)Main article: Indian independence movement
See also:
Indian independence activists and Pakistan Movement
The numbers of British in India were small, One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,[406] leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",[406] "racial discriminations",[407] and "the revelation of India's past".[408] The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.[409] The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.[410] Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"[411] became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;[412] the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.[412] The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian independence. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action. The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.[414]
From 1920 leaders such as Hindustan Republican Association , that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.
The Allah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.[418]
After World War II (c. 1946–1947)
— From, In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.
Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim government. Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader United Provinces, and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.
 Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)Main articles: Partition of India, History of India (1947–present), History of Pakistan (1947–present), and History of Bangladesh
In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was Punjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.[420][421][422] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[421] In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.[423]
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![Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, Ghantasala Stupa.[124][125]](/File:Andhra_pradesh,_santuario_a_pi%C3%B9_piani,_da_ghantasala,_90-110_ca..JPG)
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![One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir. This Hindu temple was built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.[205]](/File:Teli_ka_Mandir_(15702266503).jpg)
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![The grave of Razia, the Sultana of Delhi, from 1236 CE to 1240 CE, the only female ruler of a major realm on the Indian subcontinent until modern times.[citation needed]](/File:Tomb_of_Razia_Sultana_001.jpg)
![An 1868 photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site[272]](/File:Ruins_of_Bala_Krishna_Temple_Vijayanagara_Hampi_1868_Edmund_Lyon_photo.jpg)
![Gajashaala or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.[273]](/File:Elephant%27s_stable_or_Gajashaale.JPG)
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![The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.[402]](/File:1st_INC1885.jpg)
![From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement.[403] Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India.](/File:Nehru_gandhi.jpg)
