Second War of Scottish Independence

The Second War of Scottish Independence broke out in 1332 when

As allies of Scotland via the Auld Alliance, the French were unhappy about an English expansion into Scotland and so covertly supported and financed David's loyalists. Balliol's allies fell out among themselves and he lost control of most of Scotland again by late 1334. In early 1335 the French attempted to broker a peace. However, the Scots were unable to agree a position and Edward prevaricated while building a large army. He invaded in July and again overran most of Scotland. Tensions with France increased. Further French-sponsored peace talks failed in 1336 and in May 1337 the French king, Philip VI, engineered a clear break between France and England, starting the Hundred Years' War. The Anglo-Scottish war became a subsidiary theatre of this larger Anglo-French war. Edward sent what troops he could spare to Scotland, in spite of which the English slowly lost ground in Scotland as they were forced to focus on the French theatre. Achieving his majority David returned to Scotland from France in 1341 and by 1342 the English had been cleared from north of the border.

In 1346 Edward

Background

The

The treaty was widely resented in England and commonly known as the turpis pax, "the shameful peace". The 15-year-old Edward was forced into signing the treaty by his regents and was never reconciled to it.[7] Some Scottish nobles, refusing to swear fealty to Bruce, were disinherited and left Scotland to join forces with Edward Balliol, the eldest son of King John.^[8][7] Robert Bruce died in 1329 and his heir was 5-year-old David II (r. 1329–1371). In 1330 Edward seized Mortimer and had him executed, confined his mother, and established his personal rule.^[9]

English aggression

English invasion of Scotland, 1332

In 1331, under the leadership of Edward Balliol and

Although the idea of returning to war against Scotland did not have universal appeal among the English, Edward III gave Balliol his backing.

Balliol opened the siege of Berwick in late March 1333 and was joined by Edward with the main English army on 9 May.^[28] Berwick was well defended, well garrisoned and well stocked with provisions and materiel,^[29] but the English pressed the siege hard and by the end of June attacks by land and sea had brought Berwick to a state of ruin and the garrison close to exhaustion.^{[30][31][note 1]} A truce was arranged on 15 July, whereby the Scots promised to surrender if not relieved by sunset on 19 July.^[30] By this time the Scottish army under the third Scottish guardian within a year, Sir Archibald Douglas, had crossed the border and was devastating north-east England, but Edward ignored this.^[30] Douglas felt his only option was to engage the English in battle.^[34]

Douglas ordered an attack. To engage the English, the Scots had to advance downhill, cross a large area of marshy ground and climb the northern slope of Halidon Hill.^[35] The Lanercost Chronicle reports:

. . . the Scots who marched in the front were so wounded in the face and blinded by the multitude of English arrows that they could not help themselves, and soon began to turn their faces away from the blows of the arrows and fall.^[36]

The Scots suffered many casualties and the lower reaches of the hill were littered with dead and wounded. The survivors continued upwards, through the arrows "as thick as motes in a sun beam", according to an unnamed contemporary quoted by Ranald Nicholson,^[37] and on to the waiting spears.^[37] The Scottish army broke, the camp followers made off with the horses and the fugitives were pursued by the mounted English knights. The Scottish casualties numbered in thousands, including Douglas and five earls dead on the field.^[30] Scots who surrendered were killed on Edward's orders and some drowned as they fled into the sea.^[38] English casualties were reported as fourteen, some chronicles give a lower figure of seven.^[39][40] About a hundred Scots who had been taken prisoner were beheaded the next morning, 20 July.^[41] This was the date that Berwick's truce expired, and it surrendered.^[30][42]

Scottish resurgence, 1334

In May 1334 David fled Scotland, taking refuge in France at the invitation of its king, Philip VI.^[44] On 19 June Balliol did homage to Edward for Scotland, after formally ceding to England the eight counties of south-east Scotland.^[45][46] Balliol ruled the truncated Scottish state from Perth and attempted to put down the remaining resistance.^[47] The invaders' common goal was seemingly attained, with David's partisans holding only five fortifications in all of Scotland.^[48] But Balliol's allies fell out among themselves, which in turn encouraged David's supporters. Balliol's divided allies proved easier targets and were captured, forced out of Scotland or switched sides.^[49] The French, unhappy about an English expansion into Scotland, covertly supported and financed the Bruce loyalists, although from when is unclear.^{[note 3]} Balliol retreated to Berwick where he persuaded Edward to spend the winter of 1334–1335 in Roxburgh. Both led excursions into the surrounding western lowlands, destroying the property of friend and foe alike, but found no Scottish troops, while more of Balliol's former supporters defected to the Bruce faction. The leading pro-Bruce nobles formally appealed to Philip for military assistance.^[51][52]

French involvement

Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. The status of the English king's French fiefs was a major source of conflict between the two monarchies throughout the Middle Ages. French monarchs systematically sought to check the growth of English power, stripping away lands as the opportunity arose.^[53] Over the centuries, English holdings in France had varied in size, but by 1334 only Gascony in south-western France and Ponthieu in northern France were left.^[54] Gascony was important to Edward; the duty levied by the English Crown on wine from there was more than all other customs duties combined and by far the largest source of state income.^[55] In 1320 Edward, in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine, paid homage to Philip for Gascony.^[56]

France already had an alliance with Scotland: a mutual defence pact signed in 1295 and renewed in 1326 known as the "

In early 1335 Philip sent an ambassador to England, who met Edward in Newcastle on 18 February and questioned the basis of Edward's aggression against Scotland. Edward prevaricated but permitted the ambassador to attempt to negotiate a peaceful settlement. A truce was agreed, to last until mid-1335. The senior Scottish nobility fell out and could not agree on a position for the peace negotiations, while Edward seems to have been happy to use the episode as an opportunity to rebuild his finances and reassemble an army.^[59]

English invasion of Scotland, 1335–1336

During the spring of 1335 Edward assembled an army of more than 13,000 men on the Scottish border, the largest force he ever led against the Scots, timing his invasion to the expiration of the truce. Aware of his plans, Bruce loyalists were also preparing for war, setting aside their personal differences and evacuating the Central Lowlands in preparation for invasion. In July Edward led part of his force north from Carlisle to Glasgow. There he joined up with the balance, who had marched from Berwick under Balliol, at the end of the month. The Scots followed a scorched earth policy of offering no resistance and both English armies devastated everything in their paths. The combined force marched north to occupy the Scottish capital, Perth. It continued to loot and devastate widely, in the hope of forcing the Scots to battle.^[60]

The French, exasperated, assembled an army of 6,000 men to send to Scotland to restore David II and started to interfere in English possessions in France, even threatening to confiscate them. Scottish and French ships sailing out of French ports attacked English ships in the

Philip was persuaded by the Pope to postpone any military action against England, partly to salvage the possibility of a crusade,[64] but in March 1336 Philip persuaded David II to reject a peace treaty, which Murray, who had been appointed regent and guardian of Scotland, was prepared to accept.^[65] Philip, in turn, committed himself to restoring David to the Scottish throne. The French assembled more than 500 ships in Normandy with which they planned to transport one army to Scotland and land another at Portsmouth. While Edward spent the spring raising funds for the Scottish war and making arrangements to guard the English south coast, his subordinates further north struck repeatedly against the Scots. The Scots mostly avoided battle and were defeated when they tried to stand. They again practised a scorched earth policy, including razing Perth. Informed of the planned French descent on Scotland, Edward rode rapidly north, joining Balliol in Perth on 28 June. When the French failed to arrive Edward led 800 men out in mid-July, relieved the siege of Lochindorb, 100 miles (160 km) north of Perth and devastated the east coast of Scotland between the Firth of Tay and the Moray Firth. Forres and Aberdeen were razed; the latter was a potential port of disembarkation for any French expeditionary force. Murray continued to avoid battle.^[66]

France joins the fight

During the summer of 1336 an English embassy attempted to negotiate with Philip and David. On 20 August Philip rejected the English proposals and pledged full military support for David's partisans. French

Edward needed to guard the coast of England against the French and was attempting to form a field army to campaign on the continent again, but still found enough troops to send an expedition to Scotland in 1338. The French continued to supply the Scots, who had the better of the fighting. After several bitter campaigns, in which both sides freely destroyed crops and villages to limit their opponents' freedom of manoeuvre, the Scots wore down the English. French forces and ships assisted in the recapture of Perth in 1339.[71] By 1340 the English influence in Scotland was limited to a handful of fortifications, Stirling being the most northerly, all of them either besieged or blockaded and supplied by sea from England. Hostilities were frequently interrupted by truces, which were not always well observed.^[72]

By 1341 fighting with the English had died down, but the Scottish nobility was riven with feuds. The teenage David II returned to Scotland on 2 June with his wife Joan, Edward's sister, and attempted to establish his own authority and surround himself with his own people; inflaming an already tense situation.^[73][74] Nevertheless, the English were steadily pushed back, with Stirling capitulating to the Scots in March 1342 after a lengthy siege, removing the last English stronghold in Scotland north of the immediate border area. Even there, the strong castle of Roxburgh fell to a dawn escalade in the same month.^[75] David's difficulties in imposing his authority were typified when he rewarded Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie for retaking Roxburgh by appointing him constable of Roxburgh and sheriff of Teviotdale; this enraged Douglas, who had tried and failed to retake Roxburgh himself several times and who by some reports had already been given the positions. Douglas responded by imprisoning Ramsay and starving him to death. By 1345 David had established a degree of political control over the powerful Scottish nobility. The Scots continued to raid repeatedly into England.^[73][76]

Scottish invasion of England, 1346

In July 1346 Edward III landed in Normandy with an army of 15,000. Philip pleaded with David to fulfil Scottish obligations under the Auld Alliance and invade England: "I beg you, I implore you ... Do for me what I would willingly do for you in such a crisis and do it as quickly ... as you are able."^[77] As the English had also committed troops to Gascony, Brittany and Flanders, Philip described northern England as "a defenceless void".^[78] David felt certain few English troops would be left to defend the rich northern English cities,^[79] but when the Scots probed into northern England they were sharply rebuffed by the local defenders. David agreed a truce, to last until 29 September, to allow him to fully mobilise the Scottish army.^[80]

On 7 October the Scots invaded England with approximately 12,000 men.

With David an English captive, Balliol, who had fought at Neville's Cross, set about recruiting forces for another excursion into Scotland. Neville and

Edward attempted to come to terms with the Scots, using David as a bargaining counter. The details of the negotiations are unclear, but it seems that in 1348 Edward suggested David hold Scotland as a fief from England, naming Edward or one of his sons as his successor should he die without children.[98] In 1350 Edward offered to ransom David for £40,000, the restoration of Balliol's Scottish supporters and the naming of Edward's young son John of Gaunt as David's successor, should the king die without children. Scotland as a fiefdom had been dropped from the negotiations.^[99] David was permitted to briefly return to Scotland in early 1352 to try to negotiate a settlement.^[73][100] Stewart was disinclined to support any terms which removed him from the succession,^[99] and the Parliament of Scotland rejected Edward's terms in March 1352. David returned to English imprisonment.^[101] Still preoccupied with the war in France, Edward tried again in 1354 with a simple demand of ransom, without settlement of the English claim to suzerainty over Scotland. The Scots also rejected this, partly because it would leave open the possibility of further English attempts to bring Scotland under their control.^[73]

English invasion of Scotland, 1356

Tensions on the Anglo-Scottish border led to a military build-up by both sides in 1355. In September a nine-month truce was arranged and most of the English forces left to take part in a campaign in northern France.^[102][26] A few days after agreeing the truce, the Scots, encouraged and subsidised by the French,^[103] broke it and invaded and devastated Northumberland. In late December the Scots captured Berwick-on-Tweed and laid siege to its castle. The English army redeployed from France to Newcastle in northern England.^[104]

The English advanced to Berwick, retook the town and moved to Roxburgh in southern Scotland by mid-January 1356. There, on 20 January, Balliol surrendered his nominal position as king of Scotland in favour of Edward, his overlord, in exchange for a generous pension.^[105] From Roxburgh the English advanced on Edinburgh, leaving a trail of devastation 50–60 miles (80–100 km) wide behind them. The Scots practised their by-now traditional scorched earth policy, refusing battle and removing or destroying all food in their own territory.^[106] The English reached and burnt Edinburgh and were resupplied by sea at Haddington.^[107] Edward intended to march on Perth, perhaps to be crowned king of Scotland at nearby Scone.^[108] But contrary winds prevented the movement of the fleet he needed to supply his army.^[109] While waiting for a better wind, the English thoroughly despoiled Lothian.^[106] A winter storm drove the English fleet away and scattered it,^[110] and the English were forced to withdraw. They did so via Melrose, still widely devastating Scottish territory, but this time harassed by Scottish forces. The English army was disbanded in Carlisle in late February and the Scots went on to take two English-held castles.^[107] A truce was re-established in April.^[111]

Treaty of Berwick, 1357

In September 1356 the French suffered a shattering defeat at the

With the signing of the Treaty of Berwick, the Second War of Scottish Independence was effectively over.[117] Edward had achieved little and the Scots had maintained their independence.^[118] However, the agreement was a truce, not a peace treaty, and while it lasted for four decades intermittent fighting continued.^[117] Large-scale hostilities resumed in 1400 when English king Henry IV (r. 1399–1413) led an army into Lothian.^[119]

David returned to Scotland to deal with the rivalries of his nobles. He was accused of having acquired a luxurious and expensive lifestyle and had to put down a rebellion in 1360. Thereafter, his throne was secure.^[116] His wife Joan did not return to Scotland with him, objecting to the English mistress he had taken during his eleven years in captivity. The treaty did impose a financial hardship on Scotland but less than the constant ravages by the English army. David stopped paying after only 20,000 marks of the debt had been met, following which renegotiation led ultimately to a reduction in the debt.^[73][120]

Notes, citations and sources

Notes

Citations

1. ^ Barrow 1965, pp. 99–100.
2. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 60.
3. ^ Nicholson 1974, pp. 102–104.
4. ^ ^{a b} Sumption 1990, p. 62.
5. ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 106.
6. ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 117.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Nicholson 1974, p. 120.
8. ^ Weir 2006, pp. 313–314.
9. ^ Ormrod 1990, pp. 6–7.
10. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 124, 126.
11. ^ DeVries 1998, p. 116.
12. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 39–44.
13. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 43–46.
14. ^ DeVries 1998, pp. 119–120.
15. ^ ^{a b} Nicholson 1961, p. 19.
16. ^ Rodwell 2013, p. 25.
17. ^ Wyntoun 1907, p. 395.
18. ^ Maxwell 1913, pp. 274–275.
19. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 12.
20. ^ Brown 2004, p. 235.
21. ^ ^{a b} Nicholson 1961, pp. 23–24.
22. ^ Rogers 2010, p. 144.
23. ^ Mackay 2009, p. 111.
24. ^ Ormrod 2012, p. 161.
25. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 69, 76.
26. ^ ^{a b} Prestwich 1988, p. 469.
27. ^ ^{a b} Rogers 2014, p. 61.
28. ^ Nicholson 1961, p. 22.
29. ^ Nicholson 1961, p. 23.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e} Sumption 1990, p. 130.
31. ^ Hall 1999, p. 267.
32. ^ Brie 1960, p. 281.
33. ^ Nicholson 1961, p. 28.
34. ^ Nicholson 1961, pp. 32–33.
35. ^ Nicholson 1961, p. 36.
36. ^ Maxwell 1913, p. 279.
37. ^ ^{a b} Nicholson 1961, p. 39.
38. ^ Nicholson 1961, p. 41.
39. ^ Strickland & Hardy 2011, p. 188.
40. ^ Nicholson 1961, p. 42.
41. ^ King 2002, p. 281.
42. ^ Tuck 2002, p. 148.
43. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 131.
44. ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 130.
45. ^ Ormrod 2008.
46. ^ Rogers 2014, p. 79.
47. ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 129.
48. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 77–78.
49. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 80–81.
50. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 146.
51. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 139, 142.
52. ^ Brown 2004, p. 238.
53. ^ Prestwich 2005, p. 394.
54. ^ Harris 1994, p. 8.
55. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 39–40.
56. ^ Prestwich 2005, p. 304.
57. ^ Crowcroft & Cannon 2015, pp. 379–380.
58. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 88–90.
59. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 142–143.
60. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 144.
61. ^ Rogers 2014, p. 108.
62. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 145–147, 149–150.
63. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 94–96, 107–108.
64. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 153.
65. ^ Brown 2004, p. 239.
66. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 113–118.
67. ^ Sumption 1990, pp. 163–167, 171, 173.
68. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 179.
69. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 184.
70. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 214.
71. ^ Brown 2004, p. 285.
72. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 347.
73. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Webster 2004b.
74. ^ Brown 2002, p. 127.
75. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 408.
76. ^ Brown 2004, pp. 245–247.
77. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 500.
78. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 504.
79. ^ ^{a b c} Penman 2004, pp. 157–180.
80. ^ Brown 2004, p. 247.
81. ^ Maxwell 1913, p. 330.
82. ^ Sumption 1990, p. 550.
83. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 228–229.
84. ^ Burne 1999, p. 218.
85. ^ Prestwich & Rollason 1998, p. 143.
86. ^ DeVries 1998, p. 181.
87. ^ Maxwell 1913, pp. 336, 339.
88. ^ ^{a b} Sumption 1990, pp. 552–553.
89. ^ Sadler 2013, p. 283.
90. ^ ^{a b} Sumption 1990, p. 553.
91. ^ Maxwell 1913, p. 341.
92. ^ Sumption 1999, p. 143.
93. ^ Brown 2004, p. 248.
94. ^ Sadler 2013, p. 228.
95. ^ Boardman 2006, pp. 3, 40.
96. ^ Brown 2004, p. 249.
97. ^ Nicholson 1974, pp. 149–150.
98. ^ Webster 2004.
99. ^ ^{a b} Brown 2004, p. 251.
100. ^ Duncan2004.
101. ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 158.
102. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 169–170.
103. ^ Nicholson 1974, p. 160.
104. ^ Sumption 1999, pp. 170–171, 174, 187.
105. ^ Rogers 2014, p. 335.
106. ^ ^{a b} Rogers 2014, p. 339.
107. ^ ^{a b} Sumption 1999, p. 189.
108. ^ ^{a b c} Nicholson 1974, p. 162.
109. ^ Nicholson 1974, pp. 161–162.
110. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 339–340.
111. ^ Rogers 2014, p. 340.
112. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 377, 377 n. 150, 383–384.
113. ^ Hoskins 2011, pp. 191–192.
114. ^ Sumption 1999, p. 239.
115. ^ Rogers 2014, pp. 378–379, 381.
116. ^ ^{a b c} Wagner 2006b, p. 109.
117. ^ ^{a b} Given-Wilson & Bériac 2001, p. 809.
118. ^ Brown 2002, p. 143.
119. ^ Given-Wilson 2016, pp. 168–170.
120. ^ Brown 2004, pp. 244–245.

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