Secondary education in the United States
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Secondary education in the United States occurs in two phases. The first is the
History
Academies
Today "Academy" is a general term referring to post-secondary education, especially the most elite or liberal arts part of it. However, in the 18th and 19th century, an "academy" was what later became known as a high school. In most towns there were no public schools above the primary level. The typical college at first included a preparatory unit, which it dropped by 1900..
In the nineteenth century an academy was what later became known as a high school; in most places in the U.S. there were no public schools above the primary level. Some older high schools, such as
The religious revival knowns as the Second Great Awakening stimulated Protestant denominations to open academies and colleges. In the small town of Amherst, Massachusetts in 1812, funds were raised for a secondary school, Amherst Academy; it opened December 1814.[3] The academy incorporated in 1816,[4] and eventually counted among its students Emily Dickinson, Sylvester Graham, and Mary Lyon (founder of Mount Holyoke College).[5] By 1821 it added a higher education with Amherst College. Besides religion, the academy movement arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the western states.
Thousands of academies were started using local funds and tuition; most closed after a few years and others were established. In 1860 there were 6,415 academies in operation. When the Civil War erupted in 1861 they generally closed down temporarily; most in the South never reopened.[6]
Like Amherst, a number of colleges began as (high school) academies, then became a college by adding post-secondary unit, and then finally dropped the pre-collegiate academy. Several colleges were indirectly influenced by the academy model, including Brown University in Rhode Island and Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the college and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. It evolved into the University of Pennsylvania.[7]
By 1840 3,204 academies and similar secondary schools were in operation. Most lasted only a few years but others were created and by 1860 6,415 were in operation nationwide. The first public secondary schools started around the 1830s and 40s within the wealthier areas of similar income levels and greatly expanded after 1865 into the 1890s.[8]
Region | 1840 | 1850 | 1860 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
New England | 630 | 985 | 988 | |
Middle Atlantic | 861 | 1,626 | 1,648 | |
South Atlantic | 969 | 1,366 | 1,515 |
|
Southwest | 560 | 1,371 | 1,361 | |
West | 184 | 550 | 903 | |
Total USA | 3,204 | 5,898 | 6,415 |
Public high schools
Many high schools in the 19th century contained a "normal school" which trained students as teachers in common schools. Most of those enrolled were young women planning to teach a few years before marriage.
High school enrollment increased when schools at this level became free tuition, and when compulsory education laws required teenagers to attend until a certain age. It was believed that every American student had the opportunity to participate regardless of their ability.[10]
In 1892, in response to many competing academic philosophies being promoted at the time, a working group of educators, known as the "Committee of Ten" was established by the National Education Association. It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of elementary education followed by four years of high school. Rejecting suggestions that high schools should divide students into college-bound and working-trades groups from the start, and in some cases also by race or ethnic background, they unanimously recommended that "every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be, or at what point his education is to cease."[11]
20th century
Between 1910 and 1940, the high school movement resulted in rapidly increasing founding of public high schools in many cities and towns and later with further expansions in each locality with the establishment of neighborhood, district, or community high schools in the larger cities which may have had one or two schools since the 19th century. High school enrollment and graduation numbers and rates increased markedly, mainly due to the building of new schools, and a practical curriculum based on gaining skills "for life" rather than "for college". There was a shift towards local decision making by school districts, and a policy of easy and open enrollment. The shift from theoretical to a more practical approach in curriculum also resulted in an increase of skilled blue-collar workers. The open enrollment nature and relatively relaxed standards, such as ease of repeating a grade, also contributed to the boom in secondary schooling. There was an increase in educational attainment, primarily from the grass-roots movement of building and staffing public high schools.[citation needed] By mid-century, comprehensive high schools became common, which were designed to give a free education to any student who chose to stay in school for 12 years to get a diploma with a minimal grade point average.
In 1954, the
By 1955, the enrollment rates of secondary schools in the United States were around 80%, higher than enrollment rates in most or all European countries.[15] The goal became to minimize the number who exited at the mandatory attendance age, which varies by state between 14 and 18 years of age, and become considered to be dropouts, at risk of economic failure.[citation needed]
In 1965, the far-reaching
After 1980, the growth in educational attainment decreased, which caused the growth of the educated workforce to slow down.[18]
Under the education reform movement started in the early 1990s by many state legislatures and the federal government, about two-thirds of the nation's public high school students are
Pressure to allow people and organizations to create new
In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act required all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students. Schools that receive Title I funding must make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in test scores; for instance, each year, fifth graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year's fifth graders. Schools that miss AYP for a second consecutive year are publicly labeled as in need of improvement, and students have the option to transfer to a better school within the school district, if such options exist.[20]
By 2009, charter schools were operating in 41 of the 50 states and the national capital of Washington, D.C., and 59% of these had waiting lists.[21]
Curriculum
Authority to regulate education resides constitutionally with the individual states, with direct authority of the
Many high schools in the United States offer a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum. Schools that offer vocational programs include a very high level of technical specialization, e.g., auto mechanics or carpentry, with a half-day instruction/approved work program in senior year as the purpose of the program is to prepare students for gainful employment without a college degree. The level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in.
Core
Many states require courses in the "core" areas of English, science, social studies, and math every year although others allow more choice after 10th grade. The majority of high schools require four English credits to graduate.[22]
Three science courses, biology, chemistry, and physics are usually offered.
High school
English and language classes are usually required for four years of high school although many schools count journalism, public speaking/debate, foreign language, literature, drama, and writing (both technical and creative) classes as English/Language classes.
Social studies classes include
Many states require a
Electives
Public high schools offer a wide variety of elective courses, although the availability of such courses depends upon each particular school's financial situation. Some schools and states require students to earn a few credits of classes considered electives, most commonly foreign language and physical education.
Common types of electives include:
- Visual arts (drawing, sculpture, painting, photography, film studies, and art history)
- Performing arts (choir, drama, band, orchestra, dance, guitar)
- )
- music production)
- school newspaper, yearbook, television production)
- are less common, though the former two are gaining popularity.)
- )
- weight trainingclasses)
- Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (In some schools, JROTC may replace a credit of health or P.E.) and gun clubs and shooting teams
- Some American high schools offer drivers' education. At some schools, a student can take it during school as a regular course for a credit. At some schools, drivers education courses are only available after school.
The Association for Career and Technical Education is the largest U.S. association dedicated to promoting this type of education.
Levels of education
Middle school / Junior high school
Some students also start taking a foreign language or advanced math and science classes in middle school. Typically schools will offer
]Many also have honors classes for motivated and gifted students, where the quality of education is higher and much more is expected from the enrolled student.
Intermediate school
Intermediate school is an uncommon term, and can either be a synonym for middle school (notably as used by the New York City public schools) or for schools that encompass the latter years of primary education prior to middle school/junior high school, serving grades 3 or 4 through 5 or 6.
High school / Senior high school
High schools, or senior high schools, are schools that span grades 8, 9, or 10 through 12. Most American high schools are comprehensive high schools and accept all students from their local area, regardless of ability or vocational/college track. Students have significant control of their education, and may choose even their core classes, although the control given to students varies from state to state and school to school. The schools are managed by local school districts rather than by the central government.
Some states and cities offer special high schools with examinations to admit only the highest performing students, such as
Most states operate special residential schools for the
Most high schools have classes known as "honors" classes for motivated and gifted students, where the quality of education is higher and much more is expected from the enrolled student. Some high schools offer Regular Honors (H) (sometimes called Advanced),
Graduation from high school or senior high school leads to the awarding of the high school diploma. After this, secondary education is considered complete and students may pursue tertiary level study.
Types of schools
Secondary education can be provided within a number of different schools and settings.
Public schools
The United States public education system is structured into three levels: elementary (also known as primary) education, middle and high school (which is
All children are guaranteed the right to a free public elementary and secondary education when living within the jurisdiction of the United States regardless of race, gender, ability,
Independent schools
Independent schools are schools that are not public and not run by any government, but rather function as an independent institution. Independent schools range from levels of kindergarten to undergraduate, various institution usually accommodating different levels.[26] Most independent schools have a tuition cost of attendance [27] As of 2013–2014 there were 33,619 independent schools in the United States.[28] Most independent schools in the United States are associated with religious orientations making up 68.7% of all private schools as of 2013–2014.[28][29] This is a number had an increasing trend in the period of 1989–2005 [30] however, it dropped by about 9% in 2006–2007,[31][32] but seems to be increasing again.
All independent schools must comply with federal laws of non-discrimination and health privacy & financial security laws.[33] These include
- Age Discrimination in Employment Act (for employees or applicants over the age of 40)
- Americans with Disabilities Act
-
- Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1979
- Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion, and/or national origin)
-
- Revenue Procedure 75-50 (independent schools can not discriminate on the basis of race in any programs or financial assistance)
More specific legal restrictions apply to private schools on the state level and vary based on the state.[33]
Independent schools can accept money from the federal government otherwise called "Federal financial assistance" which can come as funds in the form of grants or loans, donations, assets and property or interest in property, services by federal employees or contract of intent to receive federal assistance, involvement in federal programs. Schools receiving funding must comply with additional federal regulations included in many of the above acts. However, a policy can also have exceptions to these regulations based on the private school characteristics, such as religious beliefs that the law would be defying or being involved in military development.[34]
Charter schools
Charter schools are subject to fewer rules, regulations, and statutes than traditional state schools, receive less public funding than public schools, typically a fixed amount per pupil and are often over-subscribed.[citation needed]
College-preparatory schools
Home schooling
It is estimated that some 2 million or 2.9% of U.S. children are home educated.
Types of scheduling
At the secondary level, students transition from the American primary education system of remaining with one class in one classroom with one teacher for the entire school day to taking multiple courses taught by different teachers in different classrooms. This system is also used by American colleges and universities at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. It requires students to develop time management and navigation skills in order to efficiently race from one classroom to the next during each school day, and to develop interpersonal communication skills in order to interact with many more teachers and classmates than before.
Traditional scheduling
Students take six, seven, eight, or sometimes nine classes per day all year long. Six classes are around 50–60 minutes in length. Seven classes are around 45–52 minutes in length. Eight classes are around 40–48 minutes in length. Nine classes are around 42 minutes or less in length.[37]
Block scheduling
Alternate day block scheduling
Also referred to as A/B block scheduling, Odd/Even block scheduling, or Day 1/ Day 2 block scheduling. Students take three to four courses, around 90–120 minutes in length, per day all year long on alternating days resulting in a full six or eight courses per year.[38][39] An example table of a possible schedule is provided below.
A/B Block Scheduling | ||
---|---|---|
Time | A Day | B Day |
8:30-10:00 | Mathematics | English |
10:15-11:45 | Spanish | Computer science |
12:00-1:00 | Lunch | |
1:15-2:45 | History | Biology |
3:00-4:30 | Physical Education | Political science |
4x4 Block Scheduling
Students take four courses, around 90 minutes in length, every day for the first semester and take four different courses every day for the second semester. This results in a full eight courses taken per year.[38][39] An example table of a possible schedule is provided below.
4x4 Block Scheduling | ||
---|---|---|
Time | Semester 1 | Semester 2 |
7:30-9:00 | Math | English |
9:05-10:35 | Spanish | Computers |
10:40-11:25 | Lunch | |
11:30-1:00 | History | Science |
1:05-2:35 | Physical Education | Health |
Teacher certification
Teachers are certified in one of two areas for high school (and in some states, certification can be to teach grades 6–12). These certifications can overlap. In Missouri, for example, middle school certification covers grades 6–8, elementary school certification covers up to grade 5, and high school certification covers grades 9–12. This reflects the wide range of grade combinations of middle schools, junior high schools, and elementary schools. Alternatively, some states certify teachers in various curricular areas (such as math or history) to teach secondary education.[citation needed]
Compulsory education
Compulsory education laws refer to "legislative mandates that school-aged children [shall] attend public, nonpublic, or homeschools until reaching specified ages."[40] In most cases, local school attendance officers enforce compulsory education laws, and all jurisdictions hold parents/legal guardians responsible to ensure their child/children attend school.[40]
History
Compulsory education first became required in Massachusetts upon the passing of the Compulsory Attendance Act of 1852.[41] The law required that all children eight to fourteen to attend school for three months out of the year, and of these twelve weeks, six of them had to be consecutive. The only exceptions to this law was if the child already attended another school for the same amount of time, proof the child had already learned the material, if they lived in poverty, or the child had a physical or mental disability preventing them from learning the material.[41]
Later, in 1873, the law was revised. The age limit was reduced from 14 to 12, but the annual attendance requirement was increased to 20 weeks a year. By 1918, all U.S. states had some sort of mandatory attendance law for school.[41]
See also
- Lists of schools in the United States
- Comprehensive high school
- Education in the United States
- Normal schools in the United States
- Primary education in the United States
- Secondary education
- Shopping mall high school
References
- ^ a b Philip J. Cook (2007-02-09). "Should sixth grade be in elementary school or middle school" (PDF). sanford.duke.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 12, 2010.
- ^ "Comparative Indicators of Education in the United States and Other G8 Countries: 2004" (PDF). National Center for Education Statistics. 2005. p. 85. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2005-02-20.
- ^ History of Amherst College during its first half century 1821–1871 Archived January 11, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Archive.org. Retrieved on August 2, 2013.
- ^ George Adams (1853). "Education in Massachusetts: Incorporated Academies". Massachusetts Register. Boston: Printed by Damrell and Moore. Archived from the original on December 22, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2016.
- ISBN 0-7524-0483-0.
- ^ Colin Burke, American collegiate populations: A test of the traditional view (NYU Press, 1982) table 1.20
- ^ Lawrence A. Cremin, American education, the colonial experience 1607-1783 (1970) pp 327-328, 380.
- ^ Goldin, Claudia (2008). The Race between Education and Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press. p. 195.
- ^ Burke (1982), table 1.20.
- ^ "Education in the United States of America". WENR. 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
- ^ National Education Association of the United States. Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies. (1894). Report of the Committee of ten on secondary school studies: with the reports of the conferences arranged by the committee. Pub. for the National Education Association by the American Book Co.. p. 17.
- ^ Nordin, Virginia Davis; Turner, William Lloyd (1980). "More than Segregation Academies: The Growing Protestant Fundamentalist Schools". The Phi Delta Kappan. 61 (6): 391–394.
- .
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- ^ Goldin, Claudia (2008). The Race between Education and Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press. p. 24.
- ^ "The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 forbids federally determined curricula." Hoover Institution – Daily Report Archives – Secretary Riley Reignites the Math Wars Archived 2012-08-01 at archive.today
- ^ Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
- ^ Goldin, Claudia, "The Race between Education and Technology." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2008, p. 6–7.
- ^ "A 'kickback' against graduation exams, USA Today, August 17, 2006 6D
- ^ Dillon, Erin & Rotherham, Andy. "States' Evidence: What It Means to Make 'Adequate Yearly Progress' Under NCLB" Archived 2010-01-24 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 19, 2009.
- ^ "Annual Survey of America's Charter Schools 2008". Center for Education Reform. July 28, 2008. Archived from the original on September 17, 2009. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
- ^ a b "What the High School Curriculum Covers | All Education Schools". AllEducationSchools.com. 9 March 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
- ^ "Gay High Schools Offer a Haven From Bullies | Education | US News". US News. 31 December 2008. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
- ^ "First LGBT high school opens in Phoenix". 4 October 2012. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
- ^ "Gay friendly high school program opening in Ferndale". M Live. MLive Media Group. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
- ^ "Private School Universe Survey (PSS)". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-28.
- ^ "Federal Role in Education". www2.ed.gov. 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2018-04-28.
- ^ a b "Private School Universe Survey (PSS)". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ "Statistics About Non-Public Education in the United States". www2.ed.gov. 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ "Private School Universe Survey (PSS)". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ "Private School Universe Survey (PSS)". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ "Private School Universe Survey (PSS)". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ a b Wilson, Debra, Gold, Stephanie J., Lovells, Hogan, "Independent Schools and Federal Laws: A Guide to Key Federal Laws and How They Apply to Your School" National Association of Independent Schools. 2013.
- ^ "State Regulations of Private Schools" US Department of Education. US Department of Education.
- ^ 1.5 Million Home-schooled Students in the United States in 2007 Issue Brief from Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. December 2008. NCES 2009–030
- ^ Education: Keep it in the family | The Economist
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- ^ a b Trenta, Louis; Newman, Isadore (Fall 2002). "Effects of a High School Block Scheduling Program on Students: A Four-Year Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Block Scheduling on Student Outcome Variables". American Secondary Education. 31: 54 – via EBSCOhost.
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- ^ a b "Compulsory Attendance". Education Law. Retrieved 2016-11-20.
- ^ a b c Grocke, Vicky. "Compulsory Education". University of Notre Dame. University of Notre Dame.
Further reading
- Burke, Colin. (1982) American collegiate populations: A test of the traditional view (NYU Press, 1982) online
- – via HathiTrust.
- .
- Huwer, Hank (2002). "United States". In Marlow-Ferguson, Rebecca (ed.). World Education Encyclopedia: A Survey of Educational Systems Worldwide. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-0-7876-5578-5.
- Labaree, David F. The making of an American high school : the credentials market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838-1939 (1988) online
- McWhirter, Jenny, Nick Boddington, Jenny Barksfield. Understanding Personal, Social, Health and Economic Education in Secondary Schools (SAGE Publications, 2017)
- Monroe, Paul, ed. Principles of secondary education (1915), major comprehensive overview; 830pp online
- Opal, J. M. “Exciting Emulation: Academies and the Transformation of the Rural North, 1780s-1820s.” Journal of American History 91#2 (2004), pp. 445–70. online
- Park, Alain, ed. Requirements for Certification of Teachers, Counselors, Librarians, Administrators for Elementary and Secondary Schools, Eighty-Seventh Edition, 2022-2023 (University of Chicago Press, 2022)
- Trollinger, Danielle N. "Identity, mission, and markets: A multiple-case study on select Catholic high schools in the United States" (PhD. Diss. University of Portland, 2019) online.
- Williams, P. John, and David Barlex, eds. Pedagogy for Technology Education in Secondary Schools: Research Informed Perspectives for Classroom Teachers (Springer International, 2020)
Elite schools
- Cookson, Peter W., Jr., and Caroline Hodges Persell. Preparing for Power: America's Elite Boarding Schools (Basic Books, 1985) online
- McLachlan, James. American Boarding Schools: A Historical Study (1970) online
Normal schools and teachers
- Burks, Benjamin D. What was normal about Virginia's normal schools: A history of Virginia's state normal schools, 1882–1930 (PhD dissertation, University of Virginia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2002. 3035340).
- Cochran-Smith, Marilyn et al., eds. Handbook of research on teacher education (Routledge, 2008) online.
- Harper, Charles A. A century of public teacher education; the story of the State teachers colleges as they evolved from the normal schools (1939) online
- Herbst, Jurgen. "Nineteenth‐century normal schools in the United States: A fresh look." History of Education 9.3 (1980): 219-227. online
- Labaree, David F. "An uneasy relationship: The history of teacher education in the university" in Marilyn Cochran-Smith, et al., eds. Handbook of research on teacher education (Routledge, 2008) pp. 290-306.
- Lucas, Christopher J. Teacher Education in America: Reform Agendas for the Twenty-First Century (Palgrave Macmillan US, 1999) pp. 3– 94 online.
- Mattingly, Paul H. The classless profession: American schoolmen in the nineteenth century (NYU Press, 1975) online.
- Ogren, Christine A. The American State Normal School: An Instrument of Great Good ( Palgrave Macmillan. 2005)
Primary sources
- Boyer, Ernest L. High school: A report on secondary education in America (1983) online.
- Perrone, Vito. Portraits of high schools : a supplement to High school : a report on secondary education in America (1985) online
- Sizer, Theodore R. ed. The Age of the Academies: Classics in Education (Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964). online book review
External links
- Digest of Education Statistics, 2004, U.S. Department of Education
- Percent of high school dropouts, U.S. Department of Education
- Consumer Guide: High School Dropout Rates, U.S. Department of Education
- American High School Hall of Fame Listing
- Occupational Outlook for High School Teachers, Bureau of Labor Statistics
- Elmer Ellsworth Brown (1920). . Encyclopedia Americana.