Secularism in France
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Part of Radicalism |
Laïcité (
French secularism has a long history: Enlightenment thinkers emphasized reason and self direction. Revolutionaries in 1789 violently overthrew the
Concept
Laïcité relies on the division between
It is best described as a belief that government and political issues should be kept separate from religious organizations and religious issues (as long as the latter do not have notable social consequences). This is meant to both protect the government from any possible interference from religious organizations and to protect the religious organization from political quarrels and controversies.
Proponents argue that laïcité itself does not necessarily imply any hostility of the government with respect to any religion, asserting that French state secularism is actually based upon respect for freedom of thought and freedom of religion. Therefore, the absence of a state religion—and the subsequent separation of the state and church—is considered by proponents to be a prerequisite for such freedoms.
Proponents maintain that laïcité is thus distinct from anti-clericalism, which actively opposes the influence of religion and the clergy. However, critics of laïcité argue that it is a disguised form of both anti-clericalism and the infringement on the individual right to religious expression. Instead of promoting freedom of thought and freedom of religion, critics argue that it prevents the believer from observing his or her religion.[7]
Another critique is that, in countries historically dominated by one religious tradition, the official avoidance of taking any positions on religious matters ultimately favors the dominant religious tradition of that country. Even in the current French Fifth Republic (1958–), school holidays mostly follow the Christian liturgical year, which includes Christmas and holiday seasons; though Easter holidays have been replaced by Spring holidays which may or may not include Easter, depending on the vagaries of the liturgical calendar. However, schools have long given leave to students for important holidays of their specific non-majority religions, and food menus served in secondary schools pay particular attention to ensuring that each religious observer may respect their religion's specific restrictions concerning diets.
History
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The French word laïc comes from Latin lāicus, which is a loanword from the Greek lāïkós (λᾱϊκός, 'of the people'), itself from lāós (λᾱός, 'people').[8][9][a] The French suffix -ité is equivalent to the English -ity. Secularism is a concept rooted in the French Revolution, beginning to develop since the French Third Republic after the Republicans gained control of the state.
While the term was originally the French equivalent of the term
From the end of the 19th century, the word laïcité has been used in the context of a
Public education has been secular since the laws of March 28, 1882, and October 30, 1886, which established "moral and civic instruction" in place of teaching religious morals and secularism of personnel and programs, respectively.
In the 19th century, secularization laws gradually separated the state from historical ties with the Catholic Church and created new sociopolitical values constructed on the principles of republican universalism. This process, which took place in a larger movement linked to modernity, entrusted the French people with redefining the political and social foundations: the executive, legislative and judicial powers; the organization of the state, its components, its representations; the education system, the rites of civil life, and the development of law and morality; regardless of religious beliefs. The Third Republic notably recreated the organization of the school system, by establishing public, secular, and compulsory education (Jules Ferry laws). The Jules Ferry laws (1881–1882) are supplemented by the Goblet law (established in 1886) on the organization of primary education, article 17 of which provides that education in public schools is exclusively entrusted to secular staff. This process culminated in 1905 with the Law of Separation of Churches and State, which solidified secularization.
1905 law and the Constitution of 1946–1958
Although the term was current throughout the 19th century, France did not fully separate church and state until the passage of its 1905 law on the separation of the Churches and the State, prohibiting the state from recognizing or funding any religion.
However, the 1905 law did not use the word laïcité itself, and so the notion of laïcité as a legal principle is open to question, as it was never defined as such by the text of a law.
Constitution of 1958–present
Secularism is a core concept in the French Constitution: Article 1 formally states that France is a secular republic ("La France est une République indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale").
Current status and debate
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The principle of laïcité in France is implemented through a number of policies, primarily based on the
- whether the sole purpose of the organization is to organize religious activities (so that, for instance, the pretense of being a religious organization is not used for tax evasion)
- whether the organization disrupts public order.
Many find that being discreet with one's religion is a necessary part of being French, which has led to frequent divisions with some non-Christian immigrants, especially with part of France's large Muslim population. As such, the debate has taken place over whether any religious apparel or displays by individuals (e.g., the Islamic hijab, Sikh turban, Christian crosses, and Jewish Stars of David and kippah) should be banned from public schools. Such a ban in France came into effect in 2004. In the spring of 2011, the official non-discrimination agency, la HALDE, reinforced laïcité in hospitals—as advocated by the Minister of the Interior, Claude Guéant—and in public service generally.[citation needed] The simultaneous broadcasting of the traditional Protestant and Catholic Lent sermons (operating since 1946) has been interrupted. Earlier the broadcasting of the Russian Orthodox Christmas night liturgy was similarly stopped on 6/7 January.[clarification needed]
The strict separation of church and state which began with the 1905 law has evolved into what some religious leaders see as a "form of
In fact, it is fundamental, on the one hand, to insist upon the distinction between the political realm and that of religion in order to preserve both the religious freedom of citizens and the responsibility of the state toward them. [...] On the other hand, [it is important] to become more aware of the irreplaceable role of religion for the formation of consciences and the contribution which it can bring to – among other things – the creation of a basic ethical consensus within society.[14]
In 2009, Sarkozy changed footing on the place of religion in French society, as he publicly declared the burqa as "not welcome" in France, and favoring legislation to outlaw it. In February 2010, two people in burqas managed to pass the security doors of a post office in their full veils, after which the two removed their head coverings, pulled out a gun, and held up the post office.[15] Following March 2011, local elections strong disagreement appeared within the governing UMP over the appropriateness of holding a debate on laïcité as desired by the French President. On 30 March 2011, a letter appeared in La Croix signed by representatives of 6 religious bodies opposing the appropriateness of such a debate.
A law was passed on 2011 April 11 with strong support from political parties, as well as from Sarkozy, which made it illegal to hide the face in public spaces, affecting a few thousand women in France wearing the
Scholar
Lebanese-born French author Amin Maalouf has criticized the characterization of France's political structure as truly secular, remarking: "I have never understand how a country that called herself secular could call some of her citizens 'French Muslims', and deprive them of some of their rights merely because they belonged to a religion other than her own."[17]
Influence on other countries
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2020) |
Other countries have followed in the French model, having forms of secularism—examples include Albania, Mexico, and Turkey.[18]
Quebec (Canada)
Public discourse in
In September 2013, the government of Quebec proposed Bill 60, the "Charter affirming the values of State secularism and religious neutrality and of equality between women and men, and providing a framework for accommodation requests." The bill would alter the provincial human rights law to prohibit public employees from wearing objects that overtly indicate a religious preference. The people who would be most impacted by such a law would be Muslim women wearing a hijab, Jewish men wearing a kippah, and Sikh men (or women) wearing a turban. Employees who do not comply with the law would be terminated from their employment. The party that had proposed the bill, the Parti Québécois, was defeated in the 2014 election by the Quebec Liberal Party (who gained a majority of seats), which opposed the bill. As a result, the bill is considered 'dead'.
In 2019, Premier
Mexico
French laïcité influenced the Constitution of Mexico despite the Catholic Church maintaining strong influence. In March 2010, the Chamber Deputies introduced legislation to amend the Constitution to make the Mexican government formally laico—meaning 'lay' or 'secular'.[21] Critics of the move say the "context surrounding the amendment suggests that it might be a step backward for religious liberty and true separation of church and state".[21]
Coming on the heels of the Church's vocal objection to legalization of abortion as well as same-sex unions and adoptions in Mexico City, "together with some statements of its supporters, suggests that it might be an attempt to suppress the Catholic Church's ability to engage in public policy debates."[21] Mexico has had a history of religious suppression and persecution. Critics of the amendment reject the idea that "Utilitarians, Nihilists, Capitalists, and Socialists can all bring their philosophy to bear on public life, but Catholics (or religious minorities) must check their religion at the door" in a sort of "second-class citizenship" which they consider nothing more than religious discrimination.[21]
Switzerland
Turkey
In
This system of Turkish laïcité permeates both the government and the religious sphere. The content of the weekly sermons in all state-funded mosques has to be approved by the state. Independent Sunni communities are also illegal. Minority religions, like
In 2009, the desire to reestablish the Greek Orthodox seminary on Heybeli Island near Istanbul became a political issue in regard to Turkey's accession to EU membership. The EU considers such prohibition to amount to suppression of religious freedom.[24]
Contrast with the United States
In the
Nonetheless, separation is not extended to bar religious conduct in public places or by public servants. Public servants, up to and including the
The French philosopher and Universal Declaration of Human Rights co-drafter Jacques Maritain, a devout Catholic convert and a critic of French laïcité, noted the distinction between the models found in France and in mid-20th century United States.[27] He considered the US model of that time to be more amicable because it had both "sharp distinction and actual cooperation" between church and state (what he called "a historical treasure") and admonished the United States, "Please to God that you keep it carefully and do not let your concept of separation veer round to the European one."[27]
See also
- 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act – French law against sacrilege
- Anti-clericalism – Opposition to religious authority
- Centre d'action laïque – umbrella organisation of secularist associations in French-speaking Belgium
- Civil religion – Manifestation of religious values inherent to nations
- Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution – Anti-Christian policy during the French Revolution
- Freemasonry and Catholicism
- Politics of Turkey – Political system of Turkey
- Secularism in Turkey – Separation of religious matters and state affairs in Turkey
- Secular education – System of public education in countries with a secular government
- Secular humanism – Life stance that embraces human reason, secular ethics, and philosophical naturalism
- Secular state – State or country without a state religion
- Secularism – Position that religion should not influence civic and state affairs
- Self-determination
Notes
References
- ^ "Dictionnaire GLOBAL Français-Anglais, 2018". Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
- ^ Collins Robert French Dictionary Unabridged, Harper Collins publishers
- ^ Religion and Society in Modern Europe, by René Rémond (Author), Antonia Nevill (Translator), Malden, MA, U.S.A.: Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
- ^ Evelyn M. Acomb, The French Laic Laws, 1879-1889: The First Anti-Clerical Campaign of the Third French Republic, New York: Columbia University Press, 1941
- ^ "France". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2011. See drop-down essay on "The Third Republic and the 1905 Law of Laïcité"
- ^ a b c Excerpt of Nouveau dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire, 1911: "Jeunes Laïques - la Laïcité selon Ferdinand Buisson". Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
- ^ "The Benedict Option: Why the religious right is considering an all-out withdrawal from politics". 19 May 2015. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: laic Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "TLFi dictionary". Archived from the original on 7 January 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
- ISBN 0801443679, archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2023, retrieved 10 February 2012
- ^ ISBN 978-0-231-14102-4.
- ^ a b Beita, Peter B. French President's religious mixing riles critics Archived 20 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Christianity Today, Jan. 23, 2008,
- ^ "Sarkozy breaks French taboo on church and politics - Christian News on Christian Today". Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ a b Allen, John L. (12 September 2008), "Pope in France: The case for 'healthy secularism", National Catholic Reporter, retrieved 10 February 2012
- ^ "Burqa-clad robbers hold up post office". ABC News. 6 February 2010. Archived from the original on 17 November 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Lerner, Davide (14 June 2017). "London Gave Shelter to Radical Islam and Now It's Paying the Price, French Terrorism Expert Says". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 4 May 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
- OCLC 44398190.
- ISBN 978-1400834204, archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2023, retrieved 10 February 2012
- ^ admin. "Secularism and its discontents – The McGill Daily". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ "Legault says Bill 21 is moderate approach to an old problem | Montreal Gazette". April 2019. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
- ^ a b c d Goodrich, Luke, Mexico's Separation of Church and State Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine OffNews March 18, 2010, originally published in the Wall Street Journal
- (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- ^ a b Jean-Paul Burdy. "Les minorités non musulmanes en Turquie: "certains rapports d'ONG parlent d'une logique d'attrition"" (in French). Observatoire de la Vie Politique Turque(Ovipot.hypotheses.org). Archived from the original on 28 November 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
- ^ Clinton criticizes Turkey for shrinking Christian population Archived 1 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine Xinhuanet.com from Chinaview.cn, 3 November 2009.
- ^ Publication 557, Internal Revenue Service, 2018, archived from the original on 15 August 2018, retrieved 14 August 2018
- ^ Revenue Ruling 2007-41 (PDF), Internal Revenue Service, 2007, archived (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2018, retrieved 14 August 2018
- ^ ISBN 9780802831743, retrieved 10 February 2012
External links
- One of the architects of the law against religious symbols in schools defends the liberalism of laicite in the Harvard Law Record
- The deep roots of French secularism, article by Henri Astier on BBC News online, Sept 1st, 2004
- Karakas, Cemal (2007): Turkey. Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics and Society. Peace Research Institute Frankfurt (PRIF), Germany, PRIF-Report No. 78/2007.
- Conference on Laicite and secularism