Direct democracy
Part of the Politics series |
Direct democracy |
---|
Politics portal |
Part of the Politics series |
Democracy |
---|
Politics portal |
Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of
Overview
In direct democracy, the people decide on policies without any intermediary or representative, whereas in a representative democracy people vote for representatives who then enact policy initiatives.[2] Depending on the particular system in use, direct democracy might entail passing executive decisions, the use of sortition, making laws, directly electing or dismissing officials, and conducting trials. Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy. Semi-direct democracies, in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain the sovereign, allow for three forms of popular action: referendum (plebiscite), initiative, and recall. The first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation.[3] As of 2019[update], thirty countries allowed for referendums initiated by the population on the national level.[4]
A compulsory referendum subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to a binding popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation. A popular referendum empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a vote by the citizens. Institutions specify the timeframe for a valid petition and the number of signatures required, and may require signatures from diverse communities to protect minority interests.[3] This form of direct democracy effectively grants the voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, as in Switzerland.[5][6][7][8]
A citizen-initiated referendum, also called an initiative, empowers members of the general public to propose, by petition, specific statutory measures or constitutional reforms to the government and, as with other referendums, the vote may be binding or simply advisory. Initiatives may be direct or indirect: with the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote (as exemplified by California's system).[3] With an indirect initiative, a successful proposition is first presented to the legislature for their consideration; however, if no acceptable action is taken after a designated period of time, the proposition moves to direct popular vote. Constitutional amendments in Switzerland, Liechtenstein or Uruguay go through such a form of indirect initiative.[3]
A deliberative referendum is a referendum that increases public deliberation through purposeful institutional design. Power of recall gives the public the power to remove elected officials from office before the end of their designated standard term of office.[9]
Mandatory referendums correspond to
History
Antiquity
One strand of thought sees direct democracy as common and widespread in pre-state societies.[11][12]
The earliest well-documented direct democracy is said to be the
Also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of
Modern era
Modern-era citizen-lawmaking occurs in the cantons of Switzerland from the 13th century. In 1847 the Swiss added the "statute referendum" to their national constitution. They soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliament's laws was not enough. In 1891 they added the "constitutional amendment initiative". Swiss politics since 1891 have given the world a valuable experience-base with the national-level constitutional amendment initiative.[19] In the past 120 years, more than 240 initiatives have been put to referendums. Most popular initiatives are discussed and approved by the Parliament before the referendum. Out of the remaining initiatives that go to the referendum, only about 10% are approved by voters; in addition, voters often opt for a version of the initiative rewritten by the government. (See "Direct democracy in Switzerland" below.)[5][6][7][8]
Some of the issues surrounding the related notion of a direct democracy using the Internet and other communications technologies are dealt with in the article on e-democracy and below under the heading Electronic direct democracy. More concisely, the concept of open-source governance applies principles of the free software movement to the governance of people, allowing the entire populace to participate in government directly, as much or as little as they please.[20]
Examples
Early Athens
Athenian democracy developed in the
The greatest and longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles; after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by an oligarchic revolution towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; the most detailed accounts are of this 4th-century modification rather than of the Periclean system. It was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but the extent to which they were a real democracy is debatable.[22]
Sociologist
Liechtenstein
Despite being a monarchy, direct democracy is considered to be an engrained element on Liechtensteiner politics.[24][25][elaborate]
Switzerland
The pure form of direct democracy exists only in the
Most western countries have representative systems.
The list for mandatory or optional referendums on each political level are generally much longer in Switzerland than in any other country; for example, any amendment to the constitution must automatically be voted on by the Swiss electorate and cantons, on cantonal/communal levels often any financial decision of a certain substantial amount decreed by legislative and/or executive bodies as well.[27]
Swiss citizens vote regularly on any kind of issue on every political level, such as financial approvals of a schoolhouse or the building of a new street, or the change of the policy regarding sexual work, or on constitutional changes, or on the foreign policy of Switzerland, four times a year.[28] Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, on 103 federal questions besides many more cantonal and municipal questions.[29] During the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums.[26]
In Switzerland, simple majorities are sufficient at the municipal and cantonal level, at the federal level double majorities are required on constitutional issues.[19]
A double majority requires approval by a majority of individuals voting, and also by a majority of cantons. Thus, in Switzerland, a citizen-proposed amendment to the federal constitution (i.e.
In 1890, when the provisions for Swiss national citizen lawmaking were being debated by civil society and government, the Swiss adopted the idea of double majorities from the United States Congress, in which House votes were to represent the people and Senate votes were to represent the states.[19] According to its supporters, this "legitimacy-rich" approach to national citizen lawmaking has been very successful. Kris Kobach, former Kansas elected official, claims that Switzerland has had tandem successes both socially and economically which are matched by only a few other nations. Kobach states at the end of his book, "Too often, observers deem Switzerland an oddity among political systems. It is more appropriate to regard it as a pioneer." Finally, the Swiss political system, including its direct democratic devices in a multi-level governance context, becomes increasingly interesting for scholars of European Union integration.[30]
United States
In the New England region of the United States, towns in states such as Vermont decide local affairs through the direct democratic process of the town meeting.[31] This is the oldest form of direct democracy in the United States, and predates the founding of the country by at least a century.
Direct democracy was not what the framers of the
Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government.
[...]
[A] pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will be felt by a majority, and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party. Hence it is, that democracies have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have, in general, been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.[32]
John Witherspoon, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, said: "Pure democracy cannot subsist long nor be carried far into the departments of state – it is very subject to caprice and the madness of popular rage." Alexander Hamilton said, "That a pure democracy, if it were practicable, would be the most perfect government. Experience has proved that no position is more false than this. The ancient democracies in which the people themselves deliberated never possessed one good feature of government. Their very character was tyranny; their figure, deformity."[33]
Despite the framers' intentions at the beginning of the republic, ballot measures and their corresponding referendums have been widely used at the state and sub-state level. There is much state and federal
In various states, referendums through which the people rule include:
- Referrals by the legislature to the people of "proposed constitutional amendments" (constitutionally used in 49 states, excepting only Delaware – Initiative & Referendum Institute, 2004).
- Referrals by the legislature to the people of "proposed statute laws" (constitutionally used in all 50 states – Initiative & Referendum Institute, 2004).
- Constitutional amendment initiative is a constitutionally-defined petition process of "proposed constitutional law", which, if successful, results in its provisions being written directly into the state's constitution. Since constitutional law cannot be altered by state legislatures, this direct democracy component gives the people an automatic superiority and sovereignty, over representative government (Magelby, 1984). It is utilized at the state level in nineteen states: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon and South Dakota (Cronin, 1989). Among these states, there are three main types of the constitutional amendment initiative, with different degrees of involvement of the state legislature distinguishing between the types (Zimmerman, December 1999).
- Statute law initiative is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated petition process of "proposed statute law", which, if successful, results in law being written directly into the state's statutes. The statute initiative is used at the state level in twenty-one states: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming (Cronin, 1989). In Utah, there is no constitutional provision for citizen lawmaking. All of Utah's I&R law is in the state statutes (Zimmerman, December 1999). In most states, there is no special protection for citizen-made statutes; the legislature can begin to amend them immediately.
- Statute law referendum is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated petition process of the "proposed veto of all or part of a legislature-made law", which, if successful, repeals the standing law. It is used at the state level in twenty-four states: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming (Cronin, 1989).
- The District of Columbia have a recall function for state officials. Additional states have recall functions for local jurisdictions. Some states require specific grounds for a recall petition campaign.[35]
- Statute law affirmation is available in Nevada. It allows the voters to collect signatures to place on the ballot a question asking the state citizens to affirm a standing state law. Should the law get affirmed by a majority of state citizens, the state legislature will be barred from ever amending the law, and it can be amended or repealed only if approved by a majority of state citizens in a direct vote.[36]
Direct democracy by country
The strength of direct democracy in individual countries can be quantitatively compared by the Citizen-initiated component of direct popular vote index in
Country | Citizen-initiated component of direct popular vote index for 2021[37] |
---|---|
Albania | 0.077 |
Bolivia | 0.078 |
Bulgaria | 0.292 |
Cape Verde | 0.072 |
Colombia | 0.041 |
Costa Rica | 0.087 |
Croatia | 0.262 |
Ecuador | 0.073 |
Georgia | 0.054 |
Hungary | 0.242 |
Italy | 0.409 |
Kazakhstan | 0.032 |
Kenya | 0.042 |
Kyrgyzstan | 0.033 |
Latvia | 0.155 |
Lithuania | 0.191 |
Luxembourg | 0.038 |
Malta | 0.374 |
Mexico | 0.091 |
Moldova | 0.033 |
Montenegro | 0.048 |
New Zealand | 0.178 |
North Macedonia | 0.133 |
Peru | 0.249 |
Philippines | 0.094 |
Romania | 0.416 |
Serbia | 0.099 |
Slovakia | 0.334 |
Slovenia | 0.444 |
Switzerland | 0.841 |
Taiwan | 0.445 |
Togo | 0.037 |
Uganda | 0.048 |
Ukraine | 0.048 |
Uruguay | 0.766 |
Democratic reform trilemma
Democratic theorists have identified a trilemma due to the presence of three desirable characteristics of an ideal system of direct democracy, which are challenging to deliver all at once. These three characteristics are participation – widespread participation in the decision making process by the people affected; deliberation – a rational discussion where all major points of view are weighted according to evidence; and equality – all members of the population on whose behalf decisions are taken have an equal chance of having their views taken into account. Empirical evidence from dozens of studies suggests deliberation leads to better decision making.[38][39][40] The most popularly disputed form of direct popular participation is the referendum on constitutional matters.[41]
For the system to respect the principle of political equality, either everyone needs to be involved or there needs to be a representative random sample of people chosen to take part in the discussion. In the definition used by scholars such as James Fishkin, deliberative democracy is a form of direct democracy which satisfies the requirement for deliberation and equality but does not make provision to involve everyone who wants to be included in the discussion. Participatory democracy, by Fishkin's definition, allows inclusive participation and deliberation, but at a cost of sacrificing equality, because if widespread participation is allowed, sufficient resources rarely will be available to compensate people who sacrifice their time to participate in the deliberation. Therefore, participants tend to be those with a strong interest in the issue to be decided and often will not therefore be representative of the overall population.[42] Fishkin instead argues that random sampling should be used to select a small, but still representative, number of people from the general public.[9][38]
Fishkin concedes it is possible to imagine a system that transcends the trilemma, but it would require very radical reforms if such a system were to be integrated into mainstream politics.
Relation to other movements
In schools
See also
- Anarcho-communism
- Citizens' assembly
- Deliberative democracy
- Libertarian socialism
- Liquid democracy
- Participatory democracy
- Participatory economics
- Populism
- Sociocracy
- Sortition
- Workers' councils
References
- ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 181.
- ISBN 9780415193962.
- ^ a b c d Smith, Graham (2009). Democratic Innovations: Designing Institutions for Citizen Participation (Theories of Institutional Design). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 112.
- ^ "Popular or citizens initiative: Legal Designs - Navigator". www.direct-democracy-navigator.org.
- ^ a b c Hirschbühl (2011a).
- ^ a b c Hirschbühl (2011b).
- ^ a b c Hirschbühl (2011c).
- ^ a b c Hirschbühl (2011d).
- ^ a b Fishkin 2011, Chapters 2 & 3.
- ^ Vatter, A. Consensus and direct democracy:Conceptual and empirical linkages. European Journal of Political Research 38, 171–192 (2000).
- ^
Cherkaoui, Mohamed (29 October 2019). "Islam and Democracy: Comparative Analysis of Individual and Collective Preferences". Essay on Islamization: Changes in Religious Practice in Muslim Societies. Youth in a Globalizing World - Volume 10. Leiden: Brill (published 2019). p. 201. ISBN 9789004415034. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
[...] individuals, Muslims and non-Muslims, Greeks, Arabs, Berbers, Africans and Amerindians, have lived according to the principles of a type of direct democracy in their societies. [...] In the West, since the great revolutions, from the English in the 17th century, the American and French of the end of the 18th century, elites and then all the people have gradually experimented with a liberal democracy whose principles are indisputably different from those of tribal democracy.
- ^
Compare:
Glassman, Ronald M. (19 June 2017). "The Emergence of Democracy in Bands and Tribes". The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States. Vol. 1. Cham, Switzerland: Springer (published 2017). p. 4. ISBN 9783319516950. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
- ^ Raaflaub, Ober & Wallace 2007, p. 5
- ^ a b Cary & Scullard 1967
- ^ Abbott, Frank Frost (1963) [1901]. A History and Descriptions of Roman Political Institutions (3 ed.). New York: Noble Offset Printers Inc. pp. 157–165.
- ISBN 0-19-926108-3.
- ^ Lintott 2003, p. 43.
- JSTOR 270466.
- ^ a b c d Kobach 1993
- ^ Rushkoff, Douglas (2004). Open Source Democracy. Project Gutenburg: Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing.
- ^ Henderson, J. (1996) Comic Hero versus Political Elite pp. 307–19 in Sommerstein, A.H.; S. Halliwell; J. Henderson; B. Zimmerman, eds. (1993). Tragedy, Comedy and the Polis. Bari: Levante Editori.
- ^ Elster 1998, pp. 1–3
- ^ "Caesarism in Democratic Politics: Reflections on Max Weber".
- ^ "The Princely House Of Liechtenstein: 900 Years Of History".
- ^ "Liechtenstein's referendum on COVID-19 measures fails".
- ^ ISBN 978-2-606-01295-3.
- ^ a b "Referendums". ch.ch – A service of the Confederation, cantons and communes. Berne, Switzerland: Swiss Confederation. Archived from the original on 2017-01-10. Retrieved 2017-01-09.
- ^ Julia Slater (28 June 2013). "The Swiss vote more than any other country". Berne, Switzerland: swissinfo.ch – the international service of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2017-07-13. Retrieved 2015-07-27.
- ^ Duc-Quang Nguyen (17 June 2015). "How direct democracy has grown over the decades". Berne, Switzerland: swissinfo.ch – the international service of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-27.
- ^ Trechsel (2005)
- ISBN 9780226077987. Retrieved 27 April 2017 – via Google Books.
- ^ The Federalist No. 10 – The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection (continued) – Daily Advertiser – November 22, 1787 – James Madison. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
- ^ Zagarri 2010, p. 97
- ^ Watts 2010, p. 75
- ^ Recall of State Officials, National Conference of State Legislatures (March 8, 2016).
- ^ Statute affirmation, Ballotpedia
- ^ a b Sigman, Rachel, and Staffan I. Lindberg. "Neopatrimonialism and democracy: An empirical investigation of Africa's political regimes." V-Dem Working Paper 56 (2017).
- ^ a b Ross 2011, Chapter 3
- ^ Stokes 1998
- ^ Even Susan Strokes in her critical essay Pathologies of Deliberation concedes that a majority of academics in the field agree with this view.
- ^ Jarinovska, Kristine (2013). "Popular initiatives as means of altering the core of the Republic of Latvia" (PDF). Juridica International. 20: 152. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-07-18.
- ^ Fishkin suggests they may even have been directly mobilized by interest groups or be largely composed of people who have fallen for political propaganda and so have inflamed and distorted opinions.
- ISBN 0-17-012219-0.
Bibliography
- Cary, M.; Scullard, H. H. (1967). A History Of Rome: Down To The Reign Of Constantine (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Benedikter, Thomas E. (2021). When Citizens Decide by Themselves: An Introduction to Direct Democracy. Bozen: POLITiS.
- Cronin, Thomas E. (1989). Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- ISBN 9780521592963. Archived from the originalon 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
- ISBN 9780199604432.
- Golay, Vincent (2008). Swiss Political Institutions. Illustrated by Mix & Remix. Le Mont-sur-Lausanne: Éditions loisirs et pédagogie. ISBN 9782606012953.
- ISBN 9780691120188. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
- Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011a), The Swiss Government Report 1, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube
- Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011b), The Swiss Government Report 2, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube
- Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011c), How Direct Democracy Works In Switzerland – Report 3, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube
- Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011d), How People in Switzerland Vote – Report 4, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube
- Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011e), Switzerland & the EU: The Bilateral Agreements – Report 5, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube
- Kobach, Kris W. (1993). The Referendum: Direct Democracy In Switzerland. Dartmouth Publishing Company. ISBN 9781855213975.
- Marabello, Thomas Quinn. (2023) "The Origins of Democracy in Switzerland", Swiss American Historical Society Review, Vol. 59: No. 1, Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol59/iss1/4
- ISBN 9780520932173.
- Razsa, Maple. (2015) Bastards of Utopia: Living Radical Politics After Socialism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- ISBN 9781847375346.
- ISBN 9780521592963. Archived from the originalon 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
- Watts, Duncan (2010). Dictionary of American Government and Politics. Edinburgh University. p. 75. ISBN 9780748635016.
- Zagarri, Rosemarie (2010). The Politics of Size: Representation in the United States, 1776–1850. Cornell University. ISBN 9780801476396.
Further reading
- Arnon, Harel (January 2008). "A Theory of Direct Legislation" (LFB Scholarly)
- Cronin, Thomas E. (1989). Direct Democracy: The Politics Of Initiative, Referendum, And Recall. Harvard University Press.
- De Vos et al (2014) South African Constitutional Law – In Context: Oxford University Press
- Finley, M.I. (1973). Democracy Ancient And Modern. Rutgers University Press.
- Fotopoulos, Takis, Towards an Inclusive Democracy: The Crisis of the Growth Economy and the Need for a New Liberatory Project (London & NY: Cassell, 1997).
- Inclusive Democracy. (Athens: Gordios, 2005). (English translationof the book with the same title published in Greek).
- Fotopoulos, Takis, "Liberal and Socialist 'Democracies' versus Inclusive Democracy", The International Journal of INCLUSIVE DEMOCRACY, vol.2, no.2, (January 2006).
- Fuller, Roslyn, 2015, "Beasts and Gods: How Democracy Changed Its Meaning and Lost its Purpose." Zed Books.
- Gerber, Elisabeth R. (1999). The Populist Paradox: Interest Group Influence And The Promise Of Direct Legislation. Princeton University Press.
- Hansen, Mogens Herman (1999). The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles and Ideology. University of Oklahoma, Norman (orig. 1991).
- Köchler, Hans (1995). A Theoretical Examination of the Dichotomy between Democratic Constitutions and Political Reality. University Center Luxemburg.
- Magleby, David B. (1984). Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in The United States. Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Matsusaka, John G. (2004). For the Many or the Few: The Initiative, Public Policy, and American Democracy, Chicago Press.
- Matsusaka, John G. (2020). Let The People Rule: How Direct Democracy Can Meet the Populist Challege, Princeton University Press.
- National Conference of State Legislatures (2004). "Recall of State Officials".
- Nissani, M., (2023), "Eight Billion Cheers for Direct Democracy: Direct Democracy is Humankind’s Last, Best, and Only Hope." Dying of the Light Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367379858_Eight_Billion_Cheers_for_Direct_Democracy_Direct_Democracy_is_Humanity's_Last_Best_and_Only_Hope/references. E-book free download.
- Orr Akivae-books, Free download: Politics without politicians – Big Business, Big Government or Direct Democracy.
- Pimbert, Michel (2010). Reclaiming citizenship: empowering civil society in policy-making. In: Towards Food Sovereignty. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02612.pdf? e-book. Free download.
- Polybius (c.150 BC). The Histories. Oxford University, The Great Histories Series, Ed., Hugh R. Trevor-Roper, and E. Badian. Translated by Mortimer Chambers. Washington Square Press, Inc (1966).
- Reich, Johannes (5 June 2008). "An Interactional Model of Direct Democracy - Lessons from the Swiss Experience" (PDF). SSRN 1154019.
- Serdült, Uwe (2014) Referendums in Switzerland, in Qvortrup, Matt (Ed.) Referendums Around the World: The Continued Growth of Direct Democracy. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 65–121.
- Verhulst Jos en Nijeboer Arjen Direct Democracy e-book in 8 languages. Free download.
- Zimmerman, Joseph F. (March 1999). The New England Town Meeting: Democracy In Action Archived 2011-11-23 at the Wayback Machine. Praeger Publishers.
- Zimmerman, Joseph F. (December 1999). The Initiative: Citizen Law-Making. Praeger Publishers.
External links
- Direct democracy at Curlie
- INIREF Campaign for Direct Democracy GB
- "What are the main features of democracy" - yoopery