Seminole
yat'siminoli | |
---|---|
Black Seminole, Miccosukee, Mascogos |
The Seminole are a
Old crafts and traditions were revived in both Florida and Oklahoma in the mid-20th century as the Seminole began seeking revenue from tourists traveling along the new
Since the late 20th century, the
Etymology and culture
The word "Seminole" is almost certainly derived from the Creek word simanó-li. This has been variously translated as "frontiersman", "outcast", "runaway", "separatist", and similar words. The Creek word may be derived from the Spanish word cimarrón, meaning "runaway" or "wild one", historically used for certain Native American groups in Florida.
Seminole culture is largely derived from that of the Creek. One of the more significant holdovers from the Creek was the
History
Origins
Florida had been the home of
Native American refugees from northern wars, such as the
The new arrivals moved into virtually uninhabited lands that had once been peopled by several cultures indigenous to Florida, such as the Apalachee, Timucua, Calusa and others. The native population had been devastated by infectious diseases brought by Spanish explorers in the 1500s and later colonization by additional European settlers. Later, raids by Carolina and Native American slavers destroyed the string of Spanish missions across northern Florida. Most of the survivors left for Cuba when the Spanish withdrew, after ceding Florida to the British in 1763, following Britain's victory in the French and Indian War.
While
1700s to early 1800s
As they established themselves in northern and peninsular Florida throughout the 1700s, the various new arrivals intermingled with each other and with the few remaining indigenous people. In a process of
In part due to the arrival of Native Americans from other cultures, the Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity through
During the colonial years, the Seminole were on relatively good terms with both the Spanish and the British. In 1784, after the American Revolutionary War, Britain came to a settlement with Spain and transferred East and West Florida to it.
The
After raids by Anglo-American colonists on Seminole settlements in the mid-18th century, the Seminole retaliated by raiding the Southern Colonies (primarily Georgia), purportedly at the behest of the Spanish. The Seminoles also maintained a tradition of accepting escaped slaves from Southern plantations, infuriating planters in the American South by providing a route for their slaves to escape bondage.[20]
After the United States achieved independence, the U.S. Army and local militia groups made increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish Florida to recapture escaped slaves living among the Seminole. American general Andrew Jackson's 1817–1818 campaign against the Seminoles became known as the First Seminole War.[21] Though Spain decried the incursions into its territory, the United States effectively controlled the Florida panhandle after the war.
Seminole Wars
In 1819, the United States and Spain signed the
After acquisition by the U.S. of Florida in 1821, many American slaves and Black Seminoles frequently escaped from
Under colonists' pressure, the U.S. government made the 1823 Treaty of Camp Moultrie with the Seminoles, seizing 24 million acres in northern Florida.[26] They offered the Seminoles a much smaller reservation in the Everglades, of about 100,000-acre (400 km2).[27] They and the Black Seminoles moved into central and southern Florida.
In 1832, the U.S. government signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing with a few of the Seminole chiefs. They promised lands west of the Mississippi River if the chiefs agreed to leave Florida voluntarily with their people. The Seminoles who remained prepared for war. White colonists continued to press for their removal.
In 1835, the U.S. Army arrived to enforce the treaty. The Seminole leader Osceola led the vastly outnumbered resistance during the Second Seminole War. Drawing on a population of about 4,000 Seminoles and 800 allied Black Seminoles, he mustered at most 1,400 warriors (President Andrew Jackson estimated they had only 900). They countered combined U.S. Army and militia forces that ranged from 6,000 troops at the outset to 9,000 at the peak of deployment in 1837. To survive, the Seminole allies employed guerrilla tactics with devastating effect against U.S. forces, as they knew how to move within the Everglades and use this area for their protection. Osceola was arrested (in a breach of honor) when he came under a flag of truce to negotiations with the US in 1837. He died in jail less than a year later. He was decapitated, his body buried without his head.
Other war chiefs, such as Halleck Tustenuggee and John Jumper, and the Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse, continued the Seminole resistance against the army. After a full decade of fighting, the war ended in 1842. Scholars estimate the U.S. government spent about $40,000,000 on the war, at the time a huge sum. An estimated 3,000 Seminoles and 800 Black Seminoles were forcibly exiled to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi, where they were settled on the Creek reservation. After later skirmishes in the Third Seminole War (1855–1858), perhaps 200 survivors retreated deep into the Everglades to land that was not desired by settlers. They were finally left alone and they never surrendered.[28][29]
Several treaties seem to bear the mark of representatives of the Seminole tribe,[30] including the Treaty of Moultrie Creek and the Treaty of Payne's Landing. The Florida Seminoles say they are the only tribe in America never to have signed a peace treaty with the U.S. government.[31]
American Civil War
During the
Other leaders, such as Halleck Tustenuggee and Sonuk Mikko (Billy Bowlegs), refused to sign, withdrew from Florida, and joined with the Union.[33]
After the war, the United States government declared void all prior treaties with the Seminoles of Indian Country because of the "disloyalty" of some in allying with the Confederacy. They required new peace treaties, establishing such conditions as reducing the power of tribal councils, providing freedom or tribal membership for Black Seminoles (at the same time that enslaved African Americans were being emancipated in the South), and forced concessions of tribal land for railroads and other development.[34]
Post-Seminole Wars and the 20th century
The 1868 Florida Constitution, developed by the Reconstruction legislature, gave the Seminoles one seat in the house and one seat in the senate of the state legislature. The Seminoles never filled the positions. After white Democrats regained control over the legislature, they removed this provision from the post-Reconstruction constitution they ratified in 1885. In the early 20th century, the Florida Seminoles re-established limited relations with the U.S. government. The Seminoles maintained a thriving trade business with white merchants during this period, selling alligator hides, bird plumes, and other items sourced from the Everglades. Then, in 1906, Governor Napoleon B. Broward began an effort to drain the Everglades in attempt to convert the wetlands into farmland. The plan to drain the Everglades, new federal and state laws ending the plume trade, and the start of World War I (which put a halt to international fashion trade), all contributed to a major decline in the demand for Seminole goods.[35]
In 1930, they received 5,000 acres (20 km2) of reservation lands. Few Seminoles moved to these reservations until the 1940s. They reorganized their government and received federal recognition in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. During this process, the more traditional people near the Tamiami Trail defined themselves as independent. They received federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians in Florida in 1962.[36]
During World War II, roughly sixty-five Seminoles fled into the Everglades to avoid registering for the draft. The superintendent of the Seminole Indian agency in Dania was able to convince all but two of the group to eventually register.[37][38]
In the 1950s, the Oklahoma and Florida Seminole tribes filed land claim suits, claiming they had not received adequate compensation for their lands. Their suits were combined in the government's settlement of 1976. The Seminole tribes and Traditionals took until 1990 to negotiate an agreement as to division of the settlement, a judgment trust against which members can draw for education and other benefits. The Florida Seminoles founded a high-stakes bingo game on their reservation in the late 1970s, winning court challenges to initiate Native American gaming, which many tribes have adopted to generate revenues for welfare, education, and development.
After removal, the Seminoles in Oklahoma and Florida had little official contact until well into the 20th century. They developed along similar lines as the groups strove to maintain their culture while struggling economically. Most Seminoles in Indian Territory lived on tribal lands centered in what is now
Political and social organization
The Seminoles were organized around itálwa, the basis of their social, political and ritual systems, and roughly equivalent to towns or bands in English. They had a matrilineal kinship system, in which children are considered born into their mother's family and clan, and property and hereditary roles pass through the maternal line. Males held the leading political and social positions. Each itálwa had civil, military and religious leaders; they were self-governing throughout the nineteenth century, but would cooperate for mutual defense. The itálwa continued to be the basis of Seminole society in Oklahoma into the 21st century.[39]
Languages
Historically, the various groups of Seminoles spoke two mutually unintelligible
Muscogee is spoken by some Oklahoma Seminoles and about 200 older Florida Seminoles (the youngest native speaker was born in 1960). Today English is the predominant language among both Oklahoma and Florida Seminoles, particularly the younger generations. Most Mikasuki speakers are bilingual.[10]
Ethnobotany
The Seminole use the spines of Cirsium horridulum (also called bristly thistle) to make blowgun darts.[40]
Music
Contemporary
During the Seminole Wars, the Seminole people began to divide among themselves due to the conflict and differences in ideology. The Seminole population had also been growing significantly, though it was diminished by the wars.[41] With the division of the Seminole population between Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Florida, they still maintained some common traditions, such as powwow trails and ceremonies. In general, the cultures grew apart in their markedly different circumstances, and had little contact for a century.
The
Religion
Seminole tribes generally follow Christianity, both
In the 1950s, federal projects in Florida encouraged the tribe's reorganization. They created organizations within tribal governance to promote modernization. As Christian pastors began preaching on reservations, Green Corn Ceremony attendance decreased. This created tension between religiously traditional Seminoles and those who began adopting Christianity.[45] In the 1960s and 1970s, some tribal members on reservations, such as the Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation in Florida, viewed organized Christianity as a threat to their traditions.
By the 1980s, Seminole communities were even more concerned about loss of language and tradition. Many tribal members began to revive the observance of traditional Green Corn Dance ceremonies, and some shifted away from Christian observance. By 2000, religious tension between Green Corn Dance attendees and Christians (particularly Baptists) decreased. Some Seminole families participate in both religions; these practitioners have developed a syncretic Christianity that has absorbed some tribal traditions.[46]
Land claims
In 1946, the Department of Interior established the Indian Claims Commission, to consider compensation for tribes that claimed their lands were seized by the federal government during times of conflict. Tribes seeking settlements had to file claims by August 1961, and both the Oklahoma and Florida Seminoles did so.[26] After combining their claims, the Commission awarded the Seminole a total of $16 million in April 1976. It had established that, at the time of the 1823 Treaty of Moultrie Creek, the Seminole exclusively occupied and used 24 million acres in Florida, which they ceded under the treaty.[26] Assuming that most blacks in Florida were escaped slaves, the United States did not recognize the Black Seminoles as legally members of the tribe, nor as free in Florida under Spanish rule. Although the Black Seminoles also owned or controlled land that was seized in this cession, they were not acknowledged in the treaty.
In 1976, the groups struggled on allocation of funds among the Oklahoma and Florida tribes. Based on early 20th century population records, at which time most of the people were full-blood, the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma was to receive three-quarters of the judgment and the Florida peoples one-quarter. The Miccosukee and allied Traditionals filed suit against the settlement in 1976 to refuse the money; they did not want to give up their claim for return of lands in Florida.[26]
The federal government put the settlement in trust until the court cases could be decided. The Oklahoma and Florida tribes entered negotiations, which was their first sustained contact in the more than a century since removal. In 1990, the settlement was awarded: three-quarters to the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma and one-quarter to the Seminoles of Florida, including the Miccosukee. By that time the total settlement was worth $40 million.[47] The tribes have set up judgment trusts, which fund programs to benefit their people, such as education and health.
As a result of the Second Seminole War (1835–1842) about 3,800 Seminoles and Black Seminoles were forcibly removed to Indian Territory (the modern state of Oklahoma).[48] During the American Civil War, the members and leaders split over their loyalties, with John Chupco refusing to sign a treaty with the Confederacy. From 1861 to 1866, he led as chief of the Seminole who supported the Union and fought in the Indian Brigade.
The split among the Seminoles lasted until 1872. After the war, the United States government negotiated only with the loyal Seminole, requiring the tribe to make a new peace treaty to cover those who allied with the Confederacy, to emancipate the
The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma now has about 16,000 enrolled members, who are divided into a total of fourteen bands; for the Seminole members, these are similar to tribal clans. The Seminole have a society based on a matrilineal kinship system of descent and inheritance: children are born into their mother's band and derive their status from her people. To the end of the nineteenth century, they spoke mostly Mikasuki and Creek.
Two of the fourteen are "Freedmen Bands," composed of members descended from Black Seminoles, who were legally freed by the U.S. and tribal nations after the Civil War. They have a tradition of extended patriarchal families in close communities. While the elite interacted with the Seminoles, most of the Freedmen were involved most closely with other Freedmen. They maintained their own culture, religion and social relationships. At the turn of the 20th century, they still spoke mostly Afro-Seminole Creole, a language developed in Florida related to other African-based Creole languages.
The Nation is ruled by an elected council, with two members from each of the fourteen bands, including the Freedmen's bands. The capital is at Wewoka, Oklahoma.
The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma has had tribal citizenship disputes related to the Seminole Freedmen, both in terms of their sharing in a judgment trust awarded in settlement of a land claim suit, and their membership in the Nation.[48]
Florida Seminoles
The remaining few hundred Seminoles survived in the Florida swamplands, avoiding removal. They lived in the Everglades, to isolate themselves from European Americans. Seminoles continued their distinctive life, such as "clan-based matrilocal residence in scattered thatched-roof chickee camps."[48] Today, the Florida Seminoles proudly note the fact that their ancestors were never conquered.[49]
In the 20th century before World War II, the Seminoles in Florida divided into two groups; those who were more traditional and those willing to adapt to the reservations. Those who accepted reservation lands and made adaptations achieved federal recognition in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida.[41]
Many of those who had kept to traditional ways and spoke the
At the time the tribes were recognized, in 1957 and 1962, respectively, they entered into agreements with the US government confirming their sovereignty over tribal lands.
Seminole Tribe of Florida
The Seminoles worked hard to adapt, but they were highly affected by the rapidly changing American environment. Natural disasters magnified changes from the governmental drainage project of the Everglades. Residential, agricultural, and business development changed the "natural, social, political, and economic environment" of the Seminoles.[42] In the 1930s, the Seminoles slowly began to move onto federally designated reservation lands within the region. The U.S. government had purchased lands and put them in trust for Seminole use.[51] Initially, few Seminoles had any interest in moving to the reservation land or in establishing more formal relations with the government. Some feared that if they moved onto reservations, they would be forced to move to Oklahoma. Others accepted the move in hopes of stability, jobs promised by the Indian New Deal, or as new converts to Christianity.[52]
Beginning in the 1940s, more Seminoles began to move to the reservations. A major catalyst for this was the conversion of many Seminole to Christianity, following missionary effort spearheaded by the Creek
Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida
A traditional group who became known as the Trail Indians moved their camps closer to the Tamiami Trail connecting Tampa and Miami, where they could sell crafts to travelers. They felt disfranchised by the move of the Seminoles to reservations, who they felt were adopting too many European American ways. Their differences were exacerbated in 1950 when some reservation Seminoles filed a land claim suit against the federal government for seizure of lands in the 19th century, an action that the Trail Indians did not support.[36]
Following federal recognition of the Seminole Tribe of Florida in 1957, the Trail Indians decided to organize a separate government. They sought recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe, as they spoke the Mikasuki language. It was not intelligible to Creek speakers, but some members of each group were bilingual in the two languages, especially as the Creek-speaking Seminole were more numerous.
The
Commerce
In the
The Seminoles in Florida have been engaged in stock raising since the mid-1930s, when they received cattle from western Native Americans. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) hoped that the cattle raising would teach Seminoles to become citizens by adapting to agricultural settlements. The BIA also hoped that this program would lead to Seminole self-sufficiency. Cattle owners realized that by using their cattle as equity, they could engage in "new capital-intensive pursuits", such as housing.[56]
Since then, the two Florida tribes have developed economies based chiefly on sales of duty-free tobacco, heritage and resort tourism, and gaming. On December 7, 2006, the Seminole Tribe of Florida purchased the Hard Rock Cafe chain of restaurants. They had previously licensed it for several of their casinos.[57]
From beginnings in the 1930s during the Great Depression, the Seminole Tribe of Florida today owns "one of the largest cattle operations in Florida, and the 12th largest in the nation.[citation needed]
In the early 20th century, Florida had a population boom after the Flagler
In the 21st century, as gaming has become lucrative for the tribes, fewer Seminoles rely on crafts for income.[42] The Miccosukee Tribe earns revenue by owning and operating a casino, resort, a golf club, several museum attractions, and "Indian Village". At "Indian Village", Miccosukee demonstrate traditional, pre-contact lifestyles to educate people about their culture.
"In 1979, the Seminoles opened the first casino on Indian land, ushering in what has become a multibillion-dollar industry operated by numerous tribes nationwide."[59] This casino was the first tribally operated bingo hall in North America. Since its establishment, gaming on Native American sovereign land has been expanded under federal and state laws, and become a major source of revenue for tribal governments. Tribal gaming has provided secure employment, and the revenues have supported higher education, health insurance, services for the elderly, and personal income.[60] In more recent years, income from the gaming industry has funded major economic projects, such as acquisition and development of sugarcane fields, citrus groves, cattle ranches, ecotourism, and commercial agriculture.[61]
Numerous Florida place names honor the Seminole:
- Seminole County;
- Osceola County;
- Seminole, a city in Pinellas County;
- Seminole, a small community in Okaloosa County.
- Historic Seminole Heights, a residential district in Tampa, Florida.
There is also a Seminole County in Oklahoma, and a Seminole County in the southwest corner of Georgia (separated from Florida by Lake Seminole).
See also
- Seminole (clipper), an 1865 clipper ship
- Florida State Seminoles, athletic teams of Florida State University
Notes
- ^ Mahon & Weisman 1996, pp. 183–187.
- ^ Herrera, Chabeli (27 May 2016). "How the Seminole Tribe came to rock the Hard Rock empire". The Miami Herald.
- ^ Cridlin, Jay (October 1, 2019). "We went inside Seminole Hard Rock's $720 million Tampa expansion". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
- ^ Mahon & Weisman 1996, p. 183.
- ^ "History" Archived April 29, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Seminole Tribe website
- ^ "Treaty of Moultrie Creek, 1823". Florida Memory. State Library and Archives of Florida.
- ^ "United States. Treaty with the Seminole, 1832. 1832-05-09. State Archives of Florida, Florida Memory". Floridamemory.com. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
- ^ Mahon 2017, p. 13.
- ^ Mahon & Weisman 1996, pp. 183–184, 201–202.
- ^ a b c Sturtevant, William C., Jessica R. Cattelino (2004). "Florida Seminole and Miccosukee" (PDF). In Raymond D. Fogelson (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 14. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 429–449. Retrieved 21 June 2012.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Hawkins, Philip Colin (June 2011). "The Textual Archaeology of Seminole Colonization". Florida Anthropologist. 64 (2): 107–113.
- ISBN 0874741793.
- ISBN 0-8130-2773-X.
- ^ "Definition of Seminole". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
- ^ Sturtevant and Cattelino (2004), p.432
- ^ Hardy, Heather & Janine Scancarelli. (2005). Native Languages of the Southeastern United States, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 69-70
- ^ Mahon & Weisman 1996, pp. 187–189.
- ^ Mahon & Weisman 1996, pp. 190–191.
- ^ a b Sattler (2004), p. 461
- ^ Hatch, Thom (2012). Osceola and the Great Seminole War. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 34–70.
- ^ Hatch, Thom (2012). Osceola and the Great Seminole War. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 100.
- ^ "The Adams-Onís Treaty, 1819". Archived from the original on 2001-03-03. Retrieved 2003-02-19.
- ^ Hatch, Thom (2012). Osceola and the Great Seminole War. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 106–110.
- ^ "Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park" Archived July 18, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Network to Freedom, National Park Service, 2010, accessed 10 April 2013
- ^ Howard, Rosalyn. (2006) "The 'Wild Indians' of Andros Island: Black Seminole Legacy in the Bahamas", Journal of Black Studies. Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 275–298. Abstract on-line at "The "Wild Indians" of Andros Island". Archived from the original on 2015-11-05. Retrieved 2013-04-11..
- ^ a b c d Bill Drummond, "Indian Land Claims Unsettled 150 Years After Jackson Wars", LA Times/Washington Post News Service, printed in Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 20 October 1978, accessed 13 April 2013
- ^ a b "Concerning the Miccosukee Tribe's Ongoing Negotiations with the National Park Service Regarding the Special Use Permit Area". Resources Committee, US House of Representatives. September 25, 1997. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
- ISBN 0-8130-1196-5. pp. 145–6.
- ^ Garbarino, Merwyn S. (1989) The Seminole, p. 55.
- ^ Hatch, Thom (2012). Osceola and the Great Seminole War. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 261–275.
- ^ "No Surrender" Archived October 24, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Seminole Tribe website
- ^ JSTOR 30147523.
- ^ Porter, Kenneth W. (April 1967). "Billy Bowlegs (Holata Micco) in the Civil War (Part II)". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 45 (4): 392. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
- ^ "Reconstruction Treaties: The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture". Okhistory.org.
- JSTOR 30146740.
- ^ a b c d Mahon & Weisman 1996, pp. 203–204.
- ISBN 9780806123301.
- ^ "Present-Day Seminole Indians". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 20 (2): 217. October 1941. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ Sattler (2004), p. 459
- ^ Sturtevant, William, 1954, The Mikasuki Seminole: Medical Beliefs and Practices, Yale University, PhD Thesis, page 507
- ^ a b c "Seminole History". Seminole Tribe of Florida. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
- ^ a b c d e Cattelino, p. 41.
- ^ Clark, pp. 750, 752.
- ^ Taborn, pp. 27, 74.
- ISBN 9780820010182.
- ^ Cattelino, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Sturtevant, pp. 454-455
- ^ a b c d Cattelino, p. 23.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-6858-6. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
Seminole conquered.
- ^ "Bobby C. Billie takes on National Park Service • the Seminole Tribune". 22 November 2011.
- ^ Cattelino, p. 130.
- ^ Cattelino, p. 142.
- ^ Mahon & Weisman 1996, p. 203.
- ^ Atlas of the North American Indian, 3rd ed. New York: Checkmark Books, 2009. Print.
- ^ US Census. Web.archive.org
- ^ Cattelino, pp. 32 and 34.
- ^ "Seminoles to buy Hard Rock chain". Market Watch. December 7, 2006. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
- ^ Cattelino, p. 40.
- ^ Robert Andrew Powell (August 24, 2005). "Florida State Can Keep Its Seminoles". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
- ^ Cattelino. Ibid p. 9.
- ^ Cattelino. Ibid p. 113.
References
- Adams, Mikaëla M., "Savage Foes, Noble Warriors, and Frail Remnants: Florida Seminoles in the White Imagination, 1865–1934," Florida Historical Quarterly, 87 (Winter 2009), 404–35.
- Cattelino, Jessica R. High Stakes: Florida Seminole Gaming and Sovereignty. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8223-4227-4
- Clark, C. Blue. "Native Christianity Since 1800." Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
- Hatch, Thom. Osceola and the Great Seminole War:St. Martin's Press. New York, 2012. ISBN 978-0-312-35591-3
- Hawkins, Philip Colin. Creek Schism: Seminole Genesis Revisited. M.A. thesis, Department of History, University of South Florida, Tampa, 2009. LINK TO PDF
- Hawkins, Philip Colin. "The Textual Archaeology of Seminole Colonization." Florida Anthropologist 64 (June 2011), 107–113.
- Mahon, John K.; Weisman, Brent R. (1996). "Florida's Seminole and Miccosukee Peoples". In Gannon, Michael (ed.). The New History of Florida. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. pp. 183–206. ISBN 0-8130-1415-8.
- Mahon, John K. (2017). History of the Second Seminole War, 1835-1842 (ePub ed.). Gainesville, FL: LibraryPress@UF. ISBN 978-1-947372-26-9.
Further reading
- Frank, Andrew K. "Taking the State Out: Seminoles and Creeks in Late Eighteenth-Century Florida." Florida Historical Quarterly 84.1 (2005): 10–27.
- Hudson, Charles (1976). The Southeastern Indians, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. [ISBN missing]
- Kersey Jr., Harry A. (1989). The Florida Seminoles and the New Deal, 1933–1942, Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic University Press. [ISBN missing]
- Lancaster, Jane F. Removal Aftershock: The Seminoles' Struggles to Survive in the West, 1836–1866 (1995). [ISBN missing]
- McReynolds, Edwin C. (1957). The Seminoles, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. [ISBN missing]
- Mulroy, Kevin. Freedom on the Border (1993). [ISBN missing]
- Neill, Wilfred T. (1956). Florida's Seminole Indians, St. Petersburg: Great Outdoors Publishing Company. [ISBN missing]
- Schultz, Jack M. The Seminole Baptist Churches of Oklahoma: Maintaining a Traditional Community (2000). [ISBN missing]
- Porter, Kenneth. The Black Seminoles: History of a Freedom-Seeking People (1996). [ISBN missing]
- Sattler, Richard A. "Cowboys and Indians: Creek and Seminole Stock Raising, 1700–1900." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 22.3 (1998): 79–99.
- Sturtevant, William C. (1971). "Creek into Seminole." In North American Indians in Historical Perspective, edited by Eleanor B. Leacock and Nancy O. Lurie, 92–128. New York: Random House. [ISBN missing]
- Taborn, Karen. Momis Komet: ("We Will Endure") The Indigenization of Christian Hymn Singing by Creek and Seminole Indians. M.A. thesis, Department of Ethnomusicology, Hunter College, the City University of New York, 2006. [1]
- Twyman, Bruce Edward. The Black Seminole Legacy and North American Politics, 1693–1845 (Howard University Press, 1999). [ISBN missing]
- West, Patsy. The Enduring Seminoles: From Alligator Wrestling to Ecotourism (1998). [ISBN missing]
- Wickman, Patricia Riles (1999). The Tree That Bends: Discourse, Power, and the Survival of the Maskóki People. The University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-0966-4.
Primary sources
- Sturtevant, William C. (1987). A Seminole Source Book, New York: Garland Publishing. [ISBN missing]
External links
- Seminole Nation Historical site
- Seminole Nation of Oklahoma official website Archived 2018-06-20 at the Wayback Machine
- Seminole Tribe of Florida official site
- The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida official site Archived 2007-03-18 at the Wayback Machine
- Hitchiti-Mikasuki Creation Story
- Resources for Hitchiti and Mikasuki, William and Mary College
- Seminole history, Florida Department of State
- John Horse and the Black Seminoles, First Black Rebels to Beat American Slavery
- Clay MacCauley, The Seminole Indians of Florida, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, 1884, Project Gutenberg