Sense
A sense is a
In organisms, a
Sensory systems, or senses, are often divided into external (exteroception) and internal (
Definitions
Sensory organs
Sensory organs are
Nonhuman animals experience sensation and perception, with varying levels of similarity to and difference from humans and other animal species. For example, other mammals in general have a stronger sense of smell than humans. Some animal species lack one or more human sensory system analogues and some have sensory systems that are not found in humans, while others process and interpret the same sensory information in very different ways. For example, some animals are able to detect
Sensory modalities
Sensory modality refers to the way that information is encoded, which is similar to the idea of
Receptors
Sensory receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. Stimuli in the environment activate specialized receptor cells in the peripheral nervous system. During transduction, physical stimulus is converted into action potential by receptors and transmitted towards the central nervous system for processing.[17] Different types of stimuli are sensed by different types of receptor cells. Receptor cells can be classified into types on the basis of three different criteria: cell type, position, and function. Receptors can be classified structurally on the basis of cell type and their position in relation to stimuli they sense. Receptors can further be classified functionally on the basis of the transduction of stimuli, or how the mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical changed the cell membrane potential.[16]
Structural receptor types
Location
One way to classify receptors is based on their location relative to the stimuli. An
Cell type
The cells that interpret information about the environment can be either (1) a neuron that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites embedded in tissue that would receive a sensation; (2) a neuron that has an encapsulated ending in which the sensory nerve endings are encapsulated in connective tissue that enhances their sensitivity; or (3) a specialized receptor cell, which has distinct structural components that interpret a specific type of stimulus. The pain and temperature receptors in the dermis of the skin are examples of neurons that have free nerve endings (1). Also located in the dermis of the skin are lamellated corpuscles, neurons with encapsulated nerve endings that respond to pressure and touch (2). The cells in the retina that respond to light stimuli are an example of a specialized receptor (3), a photoreceptor.[16]
A transmembrane protein receptor is a protein in the cell membrane that mediates a physiological change in a neuron, most often through the opening of ion channels or changes in the cell signaling processes. Transmembrane receptors are activated by chemicals called ligands. For example, a molecule in food can serve as a ligand for taste receptors. Other transmembrane proteins, which are not accurately called receptors, are sensitive to mechanical or thermal changes. Physical changes in these proteins increase ion flow across the membrane, and can generate an action potential or a graded potential in the sensory neurons.[16]
Functional receptor types
A third classification of receptors is by how the receptor transduces stimuli into membrane potential changes. Stimuli are of three general types. Some stimuli are ions and macromolecules that affect transmembrane receptor proteins when these chemicals diffuse across the cell membrane. Some stimuli are physical variations in the environment that affect receptor cell membrane potentials. Other stimuli include the electromagnetic radiation from visible light. For humans, the only electromagnetic energy that is perceived by our eyes is visible light. Some other organisms have receptors that humans lack, such as the heat sensors of snakes, the ultraviolet light sensors of bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory birds.[16]
Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they transduce. The different types of functional receptor cell types are
Thresholds
Absolute threshold
Each
Differential threshold
Differential threshold or just noticeable difference (JDS) is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, or the smallest difference in stimuli that can be judged to be different from each other.
Signal detection theory
Signal detection theory quantifies the experience of the subject to the presentation of a stimulus in the presence of noise. There is internal noise and there is external noise when it comes to signal detection. The internal noise originates from static in the nervous system. For example, an individual with closed eyes in a dark room still sees something—a blotchy pattern of grey with intermittent brighter flashes—this is internal noise. External noise is the result of noise in the environment that can interfere with the detection of the stimulus of interest. Noise is only a problem if the magnitude of the noise is large enough to interfere with signal collection. The nervous system calculates a criterion, or an internal threshold, for the detection of a signal in the presence of noise. If a signal is judged to be above the criterion, thus the signal is differentiated from the noise, the signal is sensed and perceived. Errors in signal detection can potentially lead to false positives and false negatives. The sensory criterion might be shifted based on the importance of the detecting the signal. Shifting of the criterion may influence the likelihood of false positives and false negatives.[6]
Private perceptive experience
Subjective visual and auditory experiences appear to be similar across humans subjects. The same cannot be said about taste. For example, there is a molecule called propylthiouracil (PROP) that some humans experience as bitter, some as almost tasteless, while others experience it as somewhere between tasteless and bitter. There is a genetic basis for this difference between perception given the same sensory stimulus. This subjective difference in taste perception has implications for individuals' food preferences, and consequently, health.[6]
Sensory adaptation
When a stimulus is constant and unchanging, perceptual sensory adaptation occurs. During this process, the subject becomes less sensitive to the stimulus.[5]
Fourier analysis
Biological auditory (hearing), vestibular and spatial, and visual systems (vision) appear to break down real-world complex stimuli into sine wave components, through the mathematical process called Fourier analysis. Many neurons have a strong preference for certain sine frequency components in contrast to others. The way that simpler sounds and images are encoded during sensation can provide insight into how perception of real-world objects happens.[6]
Sensory neuroscience and the biology of perception
Perception occurs when nerves that lead from the sensory organs (e.g. eye) to the brain are stimulated, even if that stimulation is unrelated to the target signal of the sensory organ. For example, in the case of the eye, it does not matter whether light or something else stimulates the optic nerve, that stimulation will results in visual perception, even if there was no visual stimulus to begin with. (To prove this point to yourself (and if you are a human), close your eyes (preferably in a dark room) and press gently on the outside corner of one eye through the eyelid. You will see a visual spot toward the inside of your visual field, near your nose.)[6]
Sensory nervous system
All stimuli received by the receptors are transduced to an action potential, which is carried along one or more afferent neurons towards a specific area (cortex) of the brain. Just as different nerves are dedicated to sensory and motors tasks, different areas of the brain (cortices) are similarly dedicated to different sensory and perceptual tasks. More complex processing is accomplished across primary cortical regions that spread beyond the primary cortices. Every nerve, sensory or motor, has its own signal transmission speed. For example, nerves in the frog's legs have a 90 ft/s (99 km/h) signal transmission speed, while sensory nerves in humans, transmit sensory information at speeds between 165 ft/s (181 km/h) and 330 ft/s (362 km/h).[6]
Number | Physical stimulus | Sensory organ | Sensory system
|
Cranial nerve(s) | Cerebral cortex | Primary associated perception(s)) | Name |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Light | Eyes | Visual system | Optic (II)
|
Visual cortex | Visual perception | Sight (vision) |
2 | Sound | Ears | Auditory system | Vestibulocochlear (VIII) | Auditory cortex | Auditory perception
|
Hearing (audition) |
3 | Gravity and acceleration | Inner ear | Vestibular system | Vestibulocochlear (VIII) | Vestibular cortex | Equilibrioception
|
Balance (equilibrium) |
4 | Chemical substance | Nose | Olfactory system | Olfactory (I) | Olfactory cortex
|
Olfactory perception, Gustatory perception (taste or flavor)[19]
|
Smell (olfaction)
|
5 | Chemical substance | Mouth | Gustatory system
|
Facial (VII), Glossopharyngeal (IX) | Gustatory cortex | Gustatory perception (taste or flavor)
|
Taste (gustation) |
6 | Position, motion, temperature | Skin | Somatosensory system | Trigeminal (V), Glossopharyngeal (IX) + Spinal nerves | Somatosensory cortex
|
mechanoreception, thermoception )
|
Touch (tactition)
|
Multimodal perception
Perceptual experience is often multimodal. Multimodality integrates different senses into one unified perceptual experience. Information from one sense has the potential to influence how information from another is perceived.[5] Multimodal perception is qualitatively different from unimodal perception. There has been a growing body of evidence since the mid-1990s on the neural correlates of multimodal perception.[20]
Philosophy
The philosophy of perception is concerned with the nature of perceptual experience and the status of perceptual data, in particular how they relate to beliefs about, or knowledge of, the world. Historical inquiries into the underlying mechanisms of sensation and perception have led early researchers to subscribe to various philosophical interpretations of perception and the mind, including panpsychism, dualism, and materialism. The majority of modern scientists who study sensation and perception take on a materialistic view of the mind.[6]
Human sensation
General
Absolute threshold
Some examples of human absolute thresholds for the nine to 21 external senses.[21]
Number | Sense | Absolute threshold (obsolete system of signal detection used) |
---|---|---|
1 | Hearing | Ticking of a watch 6 m (20 ft) away, in an otherwise silent environment |
2 | Vision | Stars at night; candlelight 48 km (30 mi) away on a dark and clear night |
3 | Vestibular | Tilt of less than 30 seconds (3 degrees) of a clock's minute hand |
4 | Smell | A drop of perfume in a volume of the size of three rooms |
5 | Touch | A wing of a fly falling on the cheek from a height of 7.6 cm (3 inches) |
6 | Taste | A teaspoon of sugar in 7.5 liters (2 gallons) of water |
Multimodal perception
Humans respond more strongly to multimodal stimuli compared to the sum of each single modality together, an effect called the superadditive effect of multisensory integration.[5] Neurons that respond to both visual and auditory stimuli have been identified in the superior temporal sulcus.[20] Additionally, multimodal "what" and "where" pathways have been proposed for auditory and tactile stimuli.[22]
External
External receptors that respond to stimuli from outside the body are called
Visual system (vision)
The visual system, or sense of sight, is based on the transduction of light stimuli received through the eyes and contributes to visual perception. The visual system detects light on photoreceptors in the retina of each eye that generates electrical nerve impulses for the perception of varying colors and brightness. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods are very sensitive to light but do not distinguish colors. Cones distinguish colors but are less sensitive to dim light.[16]
At the molecular level, visual stimuli cause changes in the photopigment molecule that lead to changes in membrane potential of the photoreceptor cell. A single unit of light is called a photon, which is described in physics as a packet of energy with properties of both a particle and a wave. The energy of a photon is represented by its wavelength, with each wavelength of visible light corresponding to a particular color. Visible light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 and 720 nm. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation longer than 720 nm fall into the infrared range, whereas wavelengths shorter than 380 nm fall into the ultraviolet range. Light with a wavelength of 380 nm is blue whereas light with a wavelength of 720 nm is dark red. All other colors fall between red and blue at various points along the wavelength scale.[16]
The three types of cone opsins, being sensitive to different wavelengths of light, provide us with color vision. By comparing the activity of the three different cones, the brain can extract color information from visual stimuli. For example, a bright blue light that has a wavelength of approximately 450 nm would activate the "red" cones minimally, the "green" cones marginally, and the "blue" cones predominantly. The relative activation of the three different cones is calculated by the brain, which perceives the color as blue. However, cones cannot react to low-intensity light, and rods do not sense the color of light. Therefore, our low-light vision is—in essence—in grayscale. In other words, in a dark room, everything appears as a shade of gray. If you think that you can see colors in the dark, it is most likely because your brain knows what color something is and is relying on that memory.[16]
There is some disagreement as to whether the visual system consists of one, two, or three submodalities. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two submodalities, given that different receptors are responsible for the perception of color and brightness. Some argue[
The inability to see is called
On February 14, 2013, researchers developed a
Visual perception in psychology
According to Gestalt Psychology, people perceive the whole of something even if it is not there. The Gestalt's Law of Organization states that people have seven factors that help to group what is seen into patterns or groups: Common Fate, Similarity, Proximity, Closure, Symmetry, Continuity, and Past Experience.[24]
The Law of Common fate says that objects are led along the smoothest path. People follow the trend of motion as the lines/dots flow.[25]
The Law of Similarity refers to the grouping of images or objects that are similar to each other in some aspect. This could be due to shade, colour, size, shape, or other qualities you could distinguish.[26]
The Law of Proximity states that our minds like to group based on how close objects are to each other. We may see 42 objects in a group, but we can also perceive three groups of two lines with seven objects in each line.[25]
The Law of Closure is the idea that we as humans still see a full picture even if there are gaps within that picture. There could be gaps or parts missing from a section of a shape, but we would still perceive the shape as whole.[26]
The Law of Symmetry refers to a person's preference to see symmetry around a central point. An example would be when we use parentheses in writing. We tend to perceive all of the words in the parentheses as one section instead of individual words within the parentheses.[26]
The Law of Continuity tells us that objects are grouped together by their elements and then perceived as a whole. This usually happens when we see overlapping objects. We will see the overlapping objects with no interruptions.[26]
The Law of Past Experience refers to the tendency humans have to categorize objects according to past experiences under certain circumstances. If two objects are usually perceived together or within close proximity of each other the Law of Past Experience is usually seen.[25]
Auditory system (hearing)
Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of
Mechanoreceptors turn motion into electrical nerve pulses, which are located in the inner ear. Since sound is vibration, propagating through a medium such as air, the detection of these vibrations, that is the sense of the hearing, is a mechanical sense because these vibrations are mechanically conducted from the eardrum through a series of tiny bones to hair-like fibers in the inner ear, which detect mechanical motion of the fibers within a range of about 20 to 20,000 hertz,[27] with substantial variation between individuals. Hearing at high frequencies declines with an increase in age. Inability to hear is called deafness or hearing impairment. Sound can also be detected as vibrations conducted through the body by tactition. Lower frequencies that can be heard are detected this way. Some deaf people are able to determine the direction and location of vibrations picked up through the feet.[28]
Studies pertaining to Audition started to increase in number towards the latter end of the nineteenth century. During this time, many laboratories in the United States began to create new models, diagrams, and instruments that all pertained to the ear.[29]
There is a branch of Cognitive Psychology dedicated strictly to Audition. They call it Auditory Cognitive Psychology. The main point is to understand why humans are able to use sound in thinking outside of actually saying it.[30]
Relating to Auditory Cognitive Psychology is Psychoacoustics. Psychoacoustics is more pointed to people interested in music.[31] Haptics, a word used to refer to both taction and kinesthesia, has many parallels with psychoacoustics.[31] Most research around these two are focused on the instrument, the listener, and the player of the instrument.[31]
Somatosensory system (touch)
Somatosensation is considered a general sense, as opposed to the special senses discussed in this section. Somatosensation is the group of sensory modalities that are associated with touch and interoception. The modalities of somatosensation include
Two types of somatosensory signals that are transduced by
Low frequency vibrations are sensed by mechanoreceptors called
The heat receptors are sensitive to infrared radiation and can occur in specialized organs, for instance in
Gustatory system (taste)
The gustatory system or the sense of taste is the
Within the structure of the lingual papillae are taste buds that contain specialized gustatory receptor cells for the transduction of taste stimuli. These receptor cells are sensitive to the chemicals contained within foods that are ingested, and they release neurotransmitters based on the amount of the chemical in the food. Neurotransmitters from the gustatory cells can activate sensory neurons in the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus cranial nerves.[16]
Salty and sour taste submodalities are triggered by the
Once the gustatory cells are activated by the taste molecules, they release neurotransmitters onto the dendrites of sensory neurons. These neurons are part of the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves, as well as a component within the vagus nerve dedicated to the gag reflex. The facial nerve connects to taste buds in the anterior third of the tongue. The glossopharyngeal nerve connects to taste buds in the posterior two thirds of the tongue. The vagus nerve connects to taste buds in the extreme posterior of the tongue, verging on the pharynx, which are more sensitive to noxious stimuli such as bitterness.[16]
Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. Other tastes such as calcium.
There is a rare phenomenon when it comes to the Gustatory sense. It is called Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia. Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia is when people can "taste" words.[38] They have reported having flavor sensations they are not actually eating. When they read words, hear words, or even imagine words. They have reported not only simple flavors, but textures, complex flavors, and temperatures as well.[39]
Olfactory system (smell)
Like the sense of taste, the sense of smell, or the olfactory system, is also responsive to chemical stimuli.[16] Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory receptors (388 functional ones according to one 2003 study[40]), each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules possess a variety of features and, thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly. This combination of excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what humans perceive as the molecule's smell.[citation needed]
The olfactory receptor neurons are located in a small region within the
In the
Vestibular system (balance)
The vestibular sense, or sense of balance (equilibrium), is the sense that contributes to the perception of balance (equilibrium), spatial orientation, direction, or acceleration (
The semicircular canals are three ring-like extensions of the vestibule. One is oriented in the horizontal plane, whereas the other two are oriented in the vertical plane. The anterior and posterior vertical canals are oriented at approximately 45 degrees relative to the sagittal plane. The base of each semicircular canal, where it meets with the vestibule, connects to an enlarged region known as the ampulla. The ampulla contains the hair cells that respond to rotational movement, such as turning the head while saying "no". The stereocilia of these hair cells extend into the cupula, a membrane that attaches to the top of the ampulla. As the head rotates in a plane parallel to the semicircular canal, the fluid lags, deflecting the cupula in the direction opposite to the head movement. The semicircular canals contain several ampullae, with some oriented horizontally and others oriented vertically. By comparing the relative movements of both the horizontal and vertical ampullae, the vestibular system can detect the direction of most head movements within three-dimensional (3D) space.[16]
The
Internal
An internal sensation and perception also known as interoception[42] is "any sense that is normally stimulated from within the body".[43] These involve numerous sensory receptors in internal organs. Interoception is thought to be atypical in clinical conditions such as alexithymia.[44] Specific receptors include:
- Hunger is governed by a set of brain structures (e.g., the hypothalamus) that are responsible for energy homeostasis.[45]
- Pulmonary stretch receptors are found in the lungs and control the respiratory rate.
- suffocation if carbon dioxide levels get too high.[46]
- The vomiting center.
- Chemoreceptors in the circulatory system also measure salt levels and prompt thirst if they get too high; they can also respond to high blood sugarlevels in diabetics.
- Cutaneous receptors in the skin not only respond to touch, pressure, temperature and vibration, but also respond to vasodilation in the skin such as blushing.
- Stretch receptors in the gastrointestinal tract sense gas distension that may result in colic pain.
- Stimulation of sensory receptors in the acid reflux.
- Sensory receptors in gag reflexand corresponding gagging sensation.
- Stimulation of sensory receptors in the urinary bladder and rectummay result in perceptions of fullness.
- Stimulation of stretch sensors that sense dilation of various blood vessels may result in pain, for example headache caused by vasodilation of brain arteries.
- Cardioception refers to the perception of the activity of the heart.[47][48][49][50]
- direct DNA damage in melanocytes and keratinocytes can sense ultraviolet radiation, which plays a role in pigmentation and sunburn.
- Baroreceptors relay blood pressure information to the brain and maintain proper homeostatic blood pressure.
The perception of time is also sometimes called a sense, though not tied to a specific receptor.
Nonhuman animal sensation and perception
Human analogues
Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses listed above for humans. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely.
Smell
An example of smell in non-mammals is that of
Vomeronasal organ
Many animals (
Taste
Vision
Cats have the ability to see in low light, which is due to muscles surrounding their irides–which contract and expand their pupils–as well as to the tapetum lucidum, a reflective membrane that optimizes the image.
Cephalopods have the ability to change color using chromatophores in their skin. Researchers believe that opsins in the skin can sense different wavelengths of light and help the creatures choose a coloration that camouflages them, in addition to light input from the eyes.[60] Other researchers hypothesize that cephalopod eyes in species which only have a single photoreceptor protein may use chromatic aberration to turn monochromatic vision into color vision,[61] explaining pupils shaped like the letter U, the letter W, or a dumbbell, as well as explaining the need for colorful mating displays.[62] Some cephalopods can distinguish the polarization of light.
Spatial orientation
Many invertebrates have a statocyst, which is a sensor for acceleration and orientation that works very differently from the mammalian's semi-circular canals.
Non-human analogues
In addition, some animals have senses that humans lack.
Magnetoception
Echolocation
Certain animals, including bats and cetaceans, have the ability to determine orientation to other objects through interpretation of reflected sound (like sonar). They most often use this to navigate through poor lighting conditions or to identify and track prey. There is currently an uncertainty whether this is simply an extremely developed post-sensory interpretation of auditory perceptions or it actually constitutes a separate sense. Resolution of the issue will require brain scans of animals while they actually perform echolocation, a task that has proven difficult in practice.
Blind people report they are able to navigate and in some cases identify an object by interpreting reflected sounds (especially their own footsteps), a phenomenon known as human echolocation.
Electroreception
The only orders of mammals that are known to demonstrate electroception are the dolphin and monotreme orders. Among these mammals, the platypus[71] has the most acute sense of electroception.
A dolphin can detect electric fields in water using electroreceptors in
Spiders have been shown to detect electric fields to determine a suitable time to extend web for 'ballooning'.[73]
Body modification enthusiasts have experimented with magnetic implants to attempt to replicate this sense.[74] However, in general humans (and it is presumed other mammals) can detect electric fields only indirectly by detecting the effect they have on hairs. An electrically charged balloon, for instance, will exert a force on human arm hairs, which can be felt through tactition and identified as coming from a static charge (and not from wind or the like). This is not electroreception, as it is a post-sensory cognitive action.
Hygroreception
Hygroreception is the ability to detect changes in the moisture content of the environment.[9][75]
Infrared sensing
The ability to sense
In spite of its detection of IR light, the pits' IR detection mechanism is not similar to photoreceptors – while photoreceptors detect light via photochemical reactions, the protein in the pits of snakes is in fact a temperature-sensitive ion channel. It senses infrared signals through a mechanism involving warming of the pit organ, rather than a chemical reaction to light.[79] This is consistent with the thin pit membrane, which allows incoming IR radiation to quickly and precisely warm a given ion channel and trigger a nerve impulse, as well as vascularize the pit membrane in order to rapidly cool the ion channel back to its original "resting" or "inactive" temperature.[79]
Other
Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the
Current detection is a detection system of water currents, consisting mostly of
Slit sensillae of spiders detect mechanical strain in the exoskeleton, providing information on force and vibrations.
Plant sensation
By using a variety of sense receptors, plants sense light, temperature, humidity, chemical substances, chemical gradients, reorientation, magnetic fields, infections, tissue damage and mechanical pressure. The absence of a nervous system notwithstanding, plants interpret and respond to these stimuli by a variety of hormonal and cell-to-cell communication pathways that result in movement, morphological changes and physiological state alterations at the organism level, that is, result in plant behavior. Such physiological and cognitive functions are generally not believed to give rise to mental phenomena or qualia, however, as these are typically considered the product of nervous system activity. The emergence of mental phenomena from the activity of systems functionally or computationally analogous to that of nervous systems is, however, a hypothetical possibility explored by some schools of thought in the philosophy of mind field, such as functionalism and computationalism.[citation needed]
However, plants can perceive the world around them,[13] and might be able to emit airborne sounds similar to "screaming" when stressed. Those noises could not be detectable by human ears, but organisms with a hearing range that can hear ultrasonic frequencies—like mice, bats or perhaps other plants—could hear the plants' cries from as far as 15 feet (4.6 m) away.[80]
Artificial sensation and perception
Machine perception is the capability of a
Culture
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: This section may contain original research. Additional citations are needed. (March 2020) |
In the time of William Shakespeare, there were commonly reckoned to be five wits or five senses.[82] At that time, the words "sense" and "wit" were synonyms,[82] so the senses were known as the five outward wits.[83][84] This traditional concept of five senses is common today.
The traditional five senses are enumerated as the "five material faculties" (pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ avakanti) in Hindu literature. They appear in allegorical representation as early as in the Katha Upanishad (roughly 6th century BC), as five horses drawing the "chariot" of the body, guided by the mind as "chariot driver".
Depictions of the five traditional senses as
, smell is represented by the girl with flowers, taste is represented by the woman with the fruit, and touch is represented by the woman holding the bird.In
-
Lairesse's Allegory of the Five Senses
-
Detail of The Senses of Hearing, Touch and Taste, Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1618
-
In this painting by Pietro Paolini, each individual represents one of the five senses.[85]
See also
- Aesthesis
- Apperception
- Attention
- Chemesthesis
- Extrasensory perception
- Entoptic phenomenon
- Increased sensitivity:
- Illusions
- Auditory illusion
- Optical illusion
- Touch illusion
- Multisensory integration
- Phantom limb
- Sensation and perception psychology
- Sense of direction
- Sensitivity (human)
- Sensorium
- Sensory processing disorder
- Synesthesia (Ideasthesia)
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External links
- The 2004 Linda Buckfor their work explaining olfaction, published first in a joint paper in 1991 that described the very large family of about one thousand genes for odorant receptors and how the receptors link to the brain.
- Answers to several questions related to senses and human feeling from curious kids Archived 2013-12-13 at the Wayback Machine
- The Physiology of the Senses tutorial—12 animated chapters on vision, hearing, touch, balance and memory.