Sergei Korolev
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Сергей Королёв Сергій Корольов | |
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Sergei Pavlovich Korolev[a] (Russian: Сергей Павлович Королёв, romanized: Sergey Pavlovich Korolyov, IPA: [sʲɪrˈɡʲej ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ kərɐˈlʲɵf] ⓘ; Ukrainian: Сергій Павлович Корольов, romanized: Serhii Pavlovych Koroliov, IPA: [serˈɦij ˈpɑu̯lowɪtʃ koroˈlʲɔu̯]; 12 January 1907 [O.S. 30 December 1906] – 14 January 1966) was the lead Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer during the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. He invented the R-7 Rocket, Sputnik 1, and was involved in the launching of Laika, Sputnik 3, the first human-made object to make contact with another celestial body, Belka and Strelka, the first human being, Yuri Gagarin, into space, Voskhod 1, and the first person, Alexei Leonov, to conduct a spacewalk.[3]
Although Korolev trained as an aircraft designer, his greatest strengths proved to be in design integration, organization and strategic planning. Arrested on a false official charge as a "member of an anti-Soviet counter-revolutionary organization" (which would later be reduced to "saboteur of military technology"), he was imprisoned in 1938 for almost six years, including a few months in a
Before his death he was officially identified only as Glavny Konstruktor (Главный Конструктор), or the Chief Designer, to protect him from possible Cold War assassination attempts by the United States.[4] Even some of the cosmonauts who worked with him were unaware of his last name; he only went by Chief Designer.[3] Only following his death in 1966 was his identity revealed and he received the appropriate public recognition as the driving force behind Soviet accomplishments in space exploration during and following the International Geophysical Year.[5]
Early life
Korolev was born in the city of
His father moved to Zhytomyr to be a teacher of the Russian language.[9] Three years after Sergei's birth the couple separated due to financial difficulties. Although Pavel later wrote to Maria requesting a meeting with his son, Sergei was told by his mother that his father had allegedly died. Sergei never saw his father after the family break-up, and Pavel died in 1929 before his son learned the truth.[10]
Korolev grew up in Nizhyn,
Education
Korolev received vocational training in carpentry and academics at the Odessa Building Trades School (Stroyprofshkola No. 1). Enjoyment of a 1913 air show inspired interest in
In 1923 he joined the Society of Aviation and Aerial Navigation of Ukraine and the Crimea (OAVUK). He had his first flying lesson after joining the Odessa hydroplane squadron and had many opportunities to fly as a passenger. In 1924 he designed an OAVUK construction project glider called the K-5 when he was 17 years old.
Korolev studied specialized aviation topics until 1929, while living with his family in the typically crowded conditions of Moscow. Korolev enjoyed opportunities to fly gliders and powered aircraft during this part of his education. He designed a glider in 1928, and flew it in a competition the next year. The Communist Party accelerated the education of engineers in 1929 to meet the country's urgent need for their skills. Korolev obtained a diploma by producing a practical aircraft design by the end of the year.[16]
Early career
After graduation, Korolev worked with some of the best Soviet designers at the 4th Experimental Section aircraft design bureau OPO-4 headed by Paul Aimé Richard [fr] who emigrated to the USSR from France in the 1920s.[17] He did not stand out in this group, but while so employed he also worked independently to design a glider capable of performing aerobatics. In 1930 he became interested in the possibilities of liquid-fueled rocket engines to propel airplanes, while working at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) as a lead engineer on the Tupolev TB-3 heavy bomber.[18] Korolev earned his pilot's license in 1930 and explored the operational limits of the aircraft he piloted, wondering what was beyond his plane's altitude limit and how he could get there. Many believe this was the start of his interest in space.[19]
Korolev married Xenia Vincentini on 6 August 1931. He had first proposed marriage to her in 1924, but she then declined so she might continue her higher education. In 1931, Korolev and
Growing military interest in this new technology caused GIRD to be merged with the
Imprisonment
Joseph Stalin's Great Purge severely damaged RNII, with Director Kleymyonov and Chief Engineer Langemak arrested in November 1937, tortured, made to sign false confessions and executed in January 1938. Glushko was arrested in March 1938 and with many other leading engineers was imprisoned in the Gulag. Korolev was arrested by the NKVD on 27 June 1938 after being accused of a variety of charges, including false charges extracted from Kleymyonov, Langemak and Glushko. He was tortured in the Lubyanka prison to extract a confession. Glushko and Korolev had reportedly been denounced by Andrei Kostikov who became the head of RNII after its leadership was arrested.[26][24]
Korolev was sent to prison, where he wrote many appeals to the authorities, including
Korolev rarely talked about his experience in the Gulag, and lived under constant fear of being executed for the military secrets he possessed. He was deeply affected by his time in the camp, becoming reserved and cautious as a result. He later learned that Glushko was one of his accusers, and this was likely the cause of the lifelong animosity between the two men. The design bureau was handed over from NKVD control to the government's aviation industry commission. Korolev continued working with the bureau for another year, serving as deputy designer under Glushko and studying various rocket designs.[32]
Ballistic missiles
Korolev was commissioned into the
Stalin made rocket and missile development a national priority upon signing a decree on 13 May 1946,
Korolev returned from Germany in February 1947 and took up his duties as chief designer and Head of Department No 3 of NII-88, initially tasked with reproduction of the V-2. The Soviets were only able to obtain parts to assemble approximately a dozen V-2 rockets, so the decision was made to replicate a Soviet version, which was designated the R-1. Initially Korolev opposed this decision as he thought it was a waste of time and they should move immediately to manufacture a more advanced version, which had been designated the R-2. However Korolev was overruled and was ordered to assemble what V-2s they had for flight testing, then create the R-1 using Soviet infrastructure and materials. NII-88 also incorporated 170+ German specialists – including Helmut Gröttrup and Fritz Karl Preikschat – with approximately half based at Branch 1 of NII-88 on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger some 200 kilometres (120 mi) from Moscow. The Germans provided a variety of support to the Soviet efforts, particularly on assembling the V-2 and creating the R-1.[37]
The first Soviet tests of V-2 rockets took place in October 1947 at Kapustin Yar, with Korolev as management lead for the project. Numerous German engineers also participated in the tests. A total of 11 V-2 rockets were launched, with 5 reaching their designated targets.[38][39] In September 1948 testing of the R-1 began at Kapustin Yar, where Korolev was a formal member of the "State Commission for testing the R-1". No Germans participated in these tests, which launched 9 rockets between September and November 1948.[40]
Korolev continued to lobby for the design and construction of the R-2, including meeting with
In April 1948 the go ahead for "scientific and experimental work" was approved, which led to the creation of the R-2. The
Glushko couldn't obtain the required thrust from the R-3 engines, so the project was canceled in 1952; and Korolev joined the
Space program
Korolev was keenly aware of the orbital possibilities of the rockets being designed as ICBMs, ideas that were shared by Tikhonravov then working at NII-4.[20] On 26 May 1954, six days after being tasked to lead the R-7 ballistic missile program, Korolev submitted a proposal to use the R-7 to launch a satellite into space, naming a technical report from Tikhonravov and mentioning similar work being carried out by Americans.[19] After receiving lukewarm support from the Soviet leadership, Korolev initiated a modest satellite research project in coordination with Tikhonravov.[20] To intensify his lobbying efforts, Korolev, along with other like-minded engineers, began writing speculative articles for Soviet newspapers on space flight. They were picked up by the press in the United States and the CIA, influencing American authorities to start their own satellite programs. On 29 July 1955, the Eisenhower administration announced the intention of the United States to launch "small Earth-circling satellites" for the International Geophysical Year.[20] While the US government debated the idea of spending millions of dollars on this concept, Korolev suggested the international prestige of launching a satellite before the United States. On 5 August, he sent another proposal with American newspaper articles about the US program attached. Three days later, the Soviet leadership approved his plan.[46][47] On 30 August, Korolev met with members of the Soviet defense and scientific communities. As a result, he was allowed to use the R-7 rocket to launch satellites, and his project also gained support from the Soviet Academy of Sciences. On 30 January 1956, the USSR Council of Ministers officially approved the satellite project in its decree number 149-88ss.[20]
The original plan for the satellite called for a sophisticated scientific laboratory.
Despite having achieved one successful flight of the R-7 rocket, Korolev still faced opposition from some officials to his plan of launching a satellite. In August 1957, he proposed letting the Central Committee make the call. Because no one wanted to risk losing the prestige to the United States, Korolev's satellite launch was finally approved. In September, a second successful flight of the R-7 was made, and 6 October was established as the target date for launching PS-1, the first of the Object PS-type satellites.[20]
The lead designer of Object PS was Mikhail S. Khomyakov, and its deputy designer was Oleg G. Ivanovskiy.[20] It was constructed in less than a month by the Tikhonravov group,[46] while Korolev personally managed the assembly at a hectic pace. The satellite was a simple polished metal sphere no bigger than a beach ball, containing batteries that powered a transmitter using four external communication antennas. Korolev moved the launch date two days early, fearing a last minute launch of its own by the United States.[20] PS-1 was successfully launched into space on 4 October 1957 as Sputnik 1, becoming the very first artificial satellite of the Earth.[5]
For security reasons, the names of chief individuals in the Soviet space program became a secret. They were allowed to prepare a report detailing the design and construction of Sputnik 1, however, which was published anonymously by Pravda on 9 October. Korolev also began writing other articles under the pseudonym "Professor K. Sergeyev".[20]
The Soviet government initially had a low-key response to the success of the launch. International reaction was electrifying and tumultuous, however, which the Soviets later capitalized on.[20] Political ramifications of the accomplishment continued for decades. Nikita Khrushchev—initially bored with the idea of another Korolev rocket launch—was pleased with this success after the wide recognition, and encouraged launch of a more sophisticated satellite less than a month later, in time for the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution on 3 November.[19]
Korolev and close associate Mstislav Keldysh wished to up the ante of building a second, larger satellite by proposing the idea of putting a dog on board, which sufficiently caught the interest of the Soviet Academy of Sciences.[19] This new Sputnik 2 spacecraft had six times the mass of the Sputnik 1, and carried the dog Laika as a payload. The entire vehicle was designed from scratch within four weeks, with no time for testing or quality checks. It was successfully launched on 3 November and Laika was placed in orbit. There was no mechanism to bring the dog back to Earth; the dog died from heat exhaustion after five hours in space.[50]
The instrument-laden Sputnik 3 spacecraft was launched initially on 27 April 1958, but the satellite had a failure with the engine which caused the satellite to fall back down to Earth in separate pieces.[19] On 15 May 1958, Sputnik 3 was successfully launched into orbit. The tape recorder that was to store the data failed after launch. As a result, the discovery and mapping of the Van Allen radiation belts was left to the United States'[51] Explorer 3[52] and Pioneer 3 satellites. Sputnik 3 left little doubt with the American government about the Soviets' pending ICBM capability.
The Moon
Even before the Sputnik 1 launch, Korolev was interested in getting to the Moon. He came up with the notion to modify the R-7 missile in order to carry a package to the Moon. However, it was not until 1958 that this idea was approved, after Korolev wrote a letter explaining that his current technology would make it possible to get to the Moon.
The Luna missions were intended to make a successful soft landing on the Moon, but Korolev was unable to see a success. Luna 4 and Luna 6 both missed, Luna 5, Luna 7, and Luna 8 all crashed on the Moon. It was not until after Korolev's death that the Soviet Union successfully achieved a soft landing on the Moon with Luna 9.[19]
Towards the latter part of Korolev's life, he had been working on projects for reaching the planets Mars and Venus, and even had spacecraft ready to reach both. The United States was also working towards reaching these planets, so it was a race to see who would be successful. Korolev's two initial Mars probes suffered from engine failures, and the five probes the Soviet Union launched in hopes of reaching Venus all failed between 1961 and 1962, Korolev himself supervised the launches of all probes.[19]
On 1 November 1962, the Soviet Union successfully launched Mars 1 and although communications failed, was the very first to complete a flyby of Mars. Later, the Soviet Union launched Venera 3, which was the very first impact of Venus. It was not until after Korolev's death that the Soviet Union impacted Mars.[19]
Korolev's group was also working on ambitious programs for missions to Mars and Venus, putting a man in orbit, launching communication, spy and weather satellites, and making a soft-landing on the Moon.[53] A radio communication center needed to be built in the Crimea, near Simferopol and near Yevpatoria to control the spacecraft.[54] Many of these projects were not realized in his lifetime, and none of the planetary probes performed a completely successful mission until after his death.
Human spaceflight
Although he had conceived of the idea as early as 1948, Korolev's planning for the piloted mission began in 1958 with design studies for the future
On 15 May 1960 an uncrewed prototype performed 64 orbits of Earth, but the reentry maneuver failed. On 28 July 1960, two dogs by the names of Chaika and Lishichka were launched into space, but the mission was unsuccessful when an explosion killed the dogs. However, on 19 August, the Soviet Union became the first to successfully recover living creatures back to Earth. The dogs, Belka and Strelka were successfully launched into space on a Vostok spacecraft and they completed eighteen orbits.[19] Following this, the Soviet Union sent a total of six dogs into space, two in pairs, and two paired with a dummy. Unfortunately, not all the missions were successful. After gaining approval from the government, a modified version of Korolev's R-7 was used to launch Yuri Alexeevich Gagarin into orbit on 12 April 1961, which was before the United States was able to put Alan Shepard into space.[19] Korolev served as capsule coordinator, and was able to speak to Gagarin who was inside the capsule.[5] The first human in space and Earth orbit returned to Earth via a parachute after ejecting at an altitude of 7 kilometres (23,000 ft).[55] Gagarin was followed by additional Vostok flights, culminating with 81 orbits completed by Vostok 5[56] and the launch of Valentina Tereshkova as the first woman cosmonaut in space aboard Vostok 6.[5]
Korolev proposed communications satellites and the Vostok craft was a spinoff from the
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov described the authority Korolev commanded at this time.[4]
Long before we met him, one man dominated much of our conversation in the early days of our training; Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the mastermind behind the Soviet space program. He was only ever referred to by the initials of his first two names, SP, or by the mysterious title of "Chief Designer", or simply "Chief". For those on the space program there was no authority higher. Korolev had the reputation of being a man of the highest integrity, but also of being extremely demanding. Everyone around him was on tenterhooks, afraid of making a wrong move and invoking his wrath. He was treated like a god.
Leonov recalled the first meeting between Korolev and the cosmonauts.[60]
I was looking out of the window when he arrived, stepping out of a black Zis 110 limousine. He was taller than average;
I could not see his face, but he had a short neck and large head. He wore the collar of his dark-blue overcoat turned up and the brim of his hat pulled down.
"Sit down, my little eagles," he said as he strode into the room where we were waiting.
He glanced down a list of our names and called on us in alphabetical order to introduce ourselves briefly and talk about our flying careers.
On August 11, 1962, Korolyov launched the first group flight with
The
The resulting Voskhod was a stripped-down vehicle from which any excess weight had been removed; although a backup retrofire engine was added, since the more powerful Voskhod rocket used to launch the craft would send it to a higher orbit than the Vostok, eliminating the possibility of a natural decay of the orbit and reentry in case of primary retrorocket failure. After one uncrewed test flight, this spacecraft carried a crew of three
With the Americans planning a spacewalk with their
For the
Criticism
Engineer
I think Russia had no chance to be ahead of the Americans under Sergei Korolev and his successor, Vasili Mishin. ... Korolev was not a scientist, not a designer: he was a brilliant manager. Korolev's problem was his mentality. His intent was to somehow use the launcher he had [the N1 rocket]. It was designed in 1958 for a different purpose and with a limited payload of about 70 tons. His philosophy was, let's not work by stages [as is usual in spacecraft design], but let's assemble everything and then try it. And at last it will work. There were several attempts and failures with Lunnik [a series of uncrewed Soviet moon probes]. Sending man to the moon is too complicated, too complex for such an approach. I think it was doomed from the very beginning.[66]
Another reason the Soviet crewed lunar program didn't succeed was the rivalry between Korolev and Vladimir Chelomey. Their animosity was due to the intolerable persona of both men, and their desire for leadership at any cost. The two never said a harsh word about each other either in public or in private, but toppled each other's projects in any way possible. Instead of dividing competencies and responsibilities and cooperating in order to pursue the same goal, the two struggled for leadership in the space program.[67] According to Khrushchev, who worked for Chelomey and knew both men well, they both would have preferred the Americans to land on the Moon first rather than their rival.[68]
Death
On 3 December 1960, Korolev suffered his first heart attack. During his convalescence, it was also discovered that he was suffering from a kidney disorder, a condition brought on by his detention in the Soviet prison camps. He was warned by the doctors that if he continued to work as intensely as he had, he would not live long. Korolev became convinced that Khrushchev was only interested in the space program for its propaganda value and feared that he would cancel it entirely if the Soviets started losing their leadership to the United States, so he continued to push himself.
By 1962, Korolev's health problems were beginning to accumulate and he was suffering from numerous ailments. He had a bout of intestinal bleeding that led to him being taken to the hospital in an ambulance. In 1964 doctors diagnosed him with
The actual circumstances of Korolev's death remain somewhat uncertain. In December 1965, he was supposedly diagnosed with a bleeding
Under a policy initiated by Stalin and continued by his successors, the identity of Korolev was not revealed until after his death. The purported reason was to protect him from foreign agents from the United States. As a result, the Soviet people didn't become aware of his accomplishments until after his death. His obituary was published in the Pravda newspaper on 16 January 1966, showing a photograph of Korolev with all his medals. Korolev's ashes were interred with state honors in the Kremlin Wall.
Korolev is comparable to Wernher von Braun as the leading architects of the Space Race.[70] Like von Braun, Korolev had to compete continually with rivals, such as Vladimir Chelomey, who had their own plans for flights to the Moon. Unlike the Americans, he also had to work with technology that in many aspects was less advanced than what was available in the United States, particularly in electronics and computers, and to cope with extreme political pressure.
Korolev's successor in the Soviet space program was
Personal life
The Soviet émigré Leonid Vladimirov related the following description of Korolev by Valentin Glushko at about this time:
Short of stature, heavily built, with head sitting awkwardly on his body, with brown eyes glistening with intelligence, he was a skeptic, a cynic and a pessimist who took the gloomiest view of the future. 'We are all going to be shot and there will be no obituary' (Khlopnut bez nekrologa, Хлопнут без некролога – i.e. "we will all vanish without a trace") was his favorite expression.
— Lev Kerber[71]
Korolev was rarely known to drink alcoholic beverages, and chose to live a fairly austere lifestyle.[citation needed]
His career also contributed to instability in his personal life. About 1946, the marriage of Korolev and Vincentini began to break up. Vincentini was heavily occupied with her own career, and about this time Korolev had an affair with a younger woman named Nina Ivanovna Kotenkova, who was an English interpreter in the Podlipki office.[19] Vincentini, who still loved Korolev and was angry over the infidelity, divorced him in 1948. Korolev and Kotenkova were married in 1949, but he is known to have had affairs even after this second marriage.
Korolev's passion for his work was a characteristic that made him a great leader. He was committed to training younger engineers to move into his space and missile projects, even while consumed with his own work. Korolev knew that students would be the future of space exploration, which is why he made such an effort to communicate with them.[19] Arkady Ostashev was one of Korolev's students, who Korolev hired to do dissertation work before later becoming an engineer and working on the R-2.[19]
Awards and honours
Korolev, ultimately, will be remembered for the new genre of science and innovation management, a program manager, an idea that was not fully understood or realized until the 1990s. Korolev, an engineer by training, was able to navigate the unpredictable and dangerous Soviet politics of Moscow, secure funding and support of leadership to the cause that was only vaguely defined (space exploration), create a shared vision to sell the idea to an extended set of disparate stakeholders, create an entirely new segment of science and, finally, deliver a concrete value that defied imaginations. This genre of program management and its ability to make a profound impact, found parallels and support in the Silicon Valley of the 1990's where Korolev enjoys a cult following and remains an inspiration as the "startup CEO."
Among his awards, Korolev was twice honored as Hero of Socialist Labour, in 1956 and 1961. He was also a Lenin Prize winner in 1971,[72] and was awarded the Order of Lenin three times, the Order of the Badge of Honour and the Medal "For Labour Valour".
In 1958 he was elected to the
Sergei Khrushchev claimed that the Nobel Prize committee attempted to award Korolev but the award was turned down by Khrushchev in order to maintain harmony within the Council of Chief Designers.[74]
In 1990, Korolev was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.[75]
Namesakes
A street in Moscow was named after Korolev in 1966 and is now called Ulitsa Akademika Korolyova (Academician Korolyov Street). The memorial home-museum of akademician S.P.Korolyov was established in 1975 in the house where Korolev lived from 1959 till 1966 (Moscow, 6th Ostankinsky Lane,2/28).[76] In 1976 he was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame.[72]
The town of Kaliningrad (historic name Podlipki, Moscow region) was renamed
Quite a large number of streets exist with his name in Russia as well as in Ukraine. In
A visual phenomenon iconic to a type of rocket staging event is named the Korolev cross in honor of Korolev.
Aeroflot named a brand new Boeing 777 after Korolev in 2021.
Portrayals in fiction
The first portrayal of Korolev in Soviet cinema was made in the 1972 film Taming of the Fire, in which Korolev was played by Kirill Lavrov.
The 2001 story The Chief Designer by Andy Duncan is a fictionalized account of Korolev's career.
He was played by Steve Nicolson in the 2005 BBC co-produced docudrama Space Race.
In 2011 the British writer
He was played by Mikhail Filippov in the 2013 Russian film Gagarin: First in Space.
He was portrayed by Vladimir Ilyin in the 2017 Russian film The Age of Pioneers.
According to Ronald D. Moore, the creator of the alternate history TV series For All Mankind, the divergence point of the alternate timeline was that Korolev instead survives the surgery in 1966, which leads to the Soviets landing on the moon first.[80] Korolev then also appears in the second season, where he is portrayed by Endre Hules.
See also
Notes
- ^ Korolev is the transliteration used by the Library of Congress and adopted by James Harford for his biography.[2]
- ^ 11.01.1934. the position of deputy head of the RNII was eliminated, and instead of it the post of chief engineer was introduced.
References
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- ^ Harford 1997, p. xvi.
- ^ S2CID 24284107.
- ^ a b Scott and Leonov, p. 53. Harford, p. 135.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Late great engineers: Sergei Korolev – designated designer". 6 January 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- ^ [https://u-krane.com/sergei-korolev-ukrainian-who-opened-space-to-humankind /Ukrainian who opened Space to Humankind: Sergei Korolev
- ^ Наталия Королева – С.П. Королев Отец, Москва Наука, 2007, accessed 18 April 2021
- ^ Наталия Королева – С.П. Королев Отец, page 19, Москва Наука, 2007
- ^ В Житомире сто лет назад появился на свет Сергей Королев. ФОТО / Культура / Журнал Житомира / Zhitomir City Journal. tr. "Sergey Korolev was born in Zhitomir a hundred years ago" Zhzh.info (12 January 2007). Retrieved on 30 April 2011.
- ^ Harford 1997, p. 16.
- ^ a b Harford 1997, p. 19.
- ^ Harford 1997, p. 17-19.
- ^ Harford 1997, p. 22-23.
- ^ Harford 1997, p. 25.
- ^ Harford 1997, p. 25-28.
- ^ Harford 1997, p. 29-34.
- ^ Siddiqi 2000, p. 122.
- ^ Siddiqi 2000, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Harford 1997.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Siddiqi, Asif A. (29 March 2023). "Korolev, Sputnik, and The International Geophysical Year". NASA History Division: Sputnik and the Dawn of the Space Age. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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- ^ Chertok 2005, p. 36-38 Vol 2.
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- ^ Chertok 2005, p. 57 Vol 2.
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- ^ Siddiqi 2000, p. 57-61.
- ^ "Sergei Korolev: Father of the Soviet Union's success in space". www.esa.int. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
- ^ a b "Sputnik remembered: The first race to space (part 1) (page 1)". www.thespacereview.com. The Space Review. 2 October 2017. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
To add power to his request, he added a folder containing a bunch of recent articles from the American media, all properly translated, all communicating that the United States was giving priority to its own satellite program. The attached folder clinched the deal: a little over a week after the American announcement, on August 8, 1955, the Soviet Politburo approved a satellite project under Korolev
- ^ "Sixty Years Later, Sputnik Declassifications Offer Primer in Fake News". Fordham Newsroom. Fordham University. 10 October 2017.
"In 1954 . . . because they knew a lot of Soviet journalists, they flooded the Soviet media with speculative articles on space flight .. cited a lot in the Washington Post and New York Times. July 1955, the Eisenhower administration announces they're going to launch a satellite in a couple of years, it's going to be a scientific satellite
- ISBN 0-8130-2627-X
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- ^ "Korolev bureau". Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
- ^ "Crimean space connection". Retrieved 2 October 2021.
- ^ "Landing of the Vostok spacecraft". Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- ^ "Spaceflight mission report: Vostok 5". 11 August 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- Asif Siddiqi (12 October 2015). "Declassified documents offer a new perspective on Yuri Gagarin's flight". Archivedfrom the original on 13 December 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- ^ "Voskhod: Mission impossible". Retrieved 2 October 2021.
- ^ Siddiqi 2000, p. 384-385.
- ^ Scott and Leonov, p. 54.
- ^ "Перша пісня, яка пролунала в космосі, була українською!" [The first song that sounded in space was Ukrainian!]. YouTube (in Russian). 12 August 1962. 1:05 min. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
- ^ "From Vostok to Voskhod". Retrieved 2 October 2021.
- ^ "Kosmos-47: The Final test of Voskhod". Retrieved 2 October 2021.
- MIT. Accessed: 4 October 2011.
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- ^ Sergei Khrushchev talks to Echo Moskvy (in Russian).
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- ^ a b International Space Hall of Fame :: New Mexico Museum of Space History :: Inductee Profile Archived 30 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine nmspacemuseum.org
- ^ Image of 1969, 10k stamp. Image of 1986, 10k stamp.
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- ^ "The memorial home-museum of akademician S.P.Korolev". Archived from the original on 13 March 2005. Retrieved 6 February 2005.
- ^ What's On Main Stage Archived 21 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Hampstead Theatre. Retrieved on 30 April 2011.
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Bibliography
- Baker, David; Zak, Anatoly (9 September 2013). Race for Space 1: Dawn of the Space Age. RHK. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- Chertok, Boris (2005). Rockets and People Volumes 1-4. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- Harford, James (1997). Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-14853-9.
- Korolyov, S. P. (1934). Rocket Flight in the Stratosphere. Moscow: State Military Publishers (Гос. воен. изд.).
- Korolyov, S. P. (1957). The Practical Significance of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's Proposals in the Field of Rocketry. Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences.
- Mishin, Vassily P. (12 November 1991). "Why Didn't We Fly to the Moon?". JPRS-Usp-91-006: 10.
- ISBN 0-312-30866-3.
- Siddiqi, Asif (2000). Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945-1974 (PDF). Washington, D.C: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div. Retrieved 27 July 2022.
- Vladimirov, Leonid (1971). The Russian Space Bluff. David Floyd (trans.). The Dial Press. ISBN 0-85468-023-3.
- "Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age", – Matthew Brzezinski, ISBN 0-8050-8858-X;
- ISBN 978-5-8135-0510-2
- S. P. Korolev. Encyclopedia of life and creativity – edited by C. A. Lopota, ISBN 978-5-906674-04-3
External links
- Episode 47 of astrotalkuk.org Contains recording from the unveiling of Yuri Gagarin Statue event in London on 14 July 2011, includes Natalya Koroleva speaking about her father.
- Sergei Pavlovich Korolev (1907–1966) Biography, with several historic photographs provided by Natalya Koroleva.
- "Korolev, Mastermind of the Soviet Space Program" Biography, with a few photographs, by James Harford, adapted, in part, from the author's book.
- "Sergei Pavlovich Korolev" Biography by Phil Delnon dated May 1998.
- Korolev — detailed biography at Encyclopedia Astronautica
- Detailed biography at Centennial of Flight website
- Family history