Peopling of the Americas
The peopling of the Americas began when
While there is general agreement that the Americas were first settled from Asia, the pattern of migration and the place(s) of origin in Eurasia of the peoples who migrated to the Americas remain unclear.
The precise date for the peopling of the Americas is a long-standing open question, and while advances in
The environment during the latest glaciation
Emergence and submergence of Beringia
During the
Glaciers
The onset of the Last Glacial Maximum after 30,000 years BP saw the expansion of alpine glaciers and continental ice sheets that blocked migration routes out of Beringia. By 21,000 years BP, and possibly thousands of years earlier, the
Climate and biological environments
The paleoclimates and vegetation of eastern Siberia and Alaska during the Wisconsin glaciation have been deduced from high resolution oxygen isotope data and pollen stratigraphy.[30][38][39] Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, climates in eastern Siberia fluctuated between conditions approximating present day conditions and colder periods. The pre-LGM warm cycles in Arctic Siberia saw flourishes of megafaunas.[30] The oxygen isotope record from the Greenland Ice Cap suggests that these cycles after about 45,000 BP lasted anywhere from hundreds to between one and two thousand years, with greater duration of cold periods starting around 32,000 BP.[30] The pollen record from Elikchan Lake, north of the Sea of Okhotsk, shows a marked shift from tree and shrub pollen to herb pollen prior to 30,000 BP, as herb tundra replaced boreal forest and shrub steppe going into the LGM.[30] A similar record of tree/shrub pollen being replaced with herb pollen as the LGM approached was recovered near the Kolyma River in Arctic Siberia.[39] The abandonment of the northern regions of Siberia due to rapid cooling or the retreat of game species with the onset of the LGM has been proposed to explain the lack of archaeological sites in that region dating to the LGM.[39][40] The pollen record from the Alaskan side shows shifts between herb/shrub and shrub tundra prior to the LGM, suggesting less dramatic warming episodes than those that allowed forest colonization on the Siberian side. Diverse, though not necessarily plentiful, megafauna were present in those environments. Herb tundra dominated during the LGM, due to cold and dry conditions.[38]
Coastal environments during the Last Glacial Maximum were complex. The lowered sea level, and an isostatic bulge equilibrated with the depression beneath the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, exposed the continental shelf to form a coastal plain.[41] While much of the coastal plain was covered with piedmont glaciers, unglaciated refugia supporting terrestrial mammals have been identified on Haida Gwaii, Prince of Wales Island, and outer islands of the Alexander Archipelago.[38] The now-submerged coastal plain has potential for more refugia.[38] Pollen data indicate mostly herb/shrub tundra vegetation in unglaciated areas, with some boreal forest towards the southern end of the range of Cordilleran ice.[38] The coastal marine environment remained productive, as indicated by fossils of pinnipeds.[41] The highly productive kelp forests over rocky marine shallows may have been a lure for coastal migration.[42][43] Reconstruction of the southern Beringian coastline also suggests potential for a highly productive coastal marine environment.[43]
Environmental changes during deglaciation
Pollen data indicate a warm period culminating between 17,000 and 13,000 BP followed by cooling between 13,000 and 11,500 BP.
The inland Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets retreated more slowly than did the coastal glaciers. Opening of an ice-free corridor did not occur until after 13,000 to 12,000 BP.[31][32][33] The early environment of the ice-free corridor was dominated by glacial outwash and meltwater, with ice-dammed lakes and periodic flooding from the release of ice-dammed meltwater.[31] Biological productivity of the deglaciated landscape increased slowly.[33] The earliest possible viability of the ice-free corridor as a human migration route has been estimated at 11,500 BP.[33]
Birch forests were advancing across former herb tundra in Beringia by 17,000 BP in response to climatic amelioration, indicating increased productivity of the landscape.[39]
Analyses of biomarkers and microfossils preserved in sediments from Lake E5 and Burial Lake in northern Alaska suggest early humans burned Beringian landscapes as early as 34,000 years ago.[44][45] The authors of these studies suggest that fire was used as means of hunting megafauna.
Chronology, reasons for, and sources of migration
The Indigenous peoples of the Americas have ascertained archaeological presence in the Americas dating back to about 15,000 years ago.[46][47] More recent research, however, suggests a human presence dating to between 18,000 and 26,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum.[48][49][7] There remain uncertainties regarding the precise dating of individual sites and regarding conclusions drawn from population genetics studies of contemporary Native Americans.
Chronology
In the early 21st century, the models of the chronology of migration are divided into two general approaches.[51][52]
The first is the short chronology theory, that the first migration occurred after the LGM, which went into decline after about 19,000 years ago,[36] and was then followed by successive waves of immigrants.[53]
The second theory is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered Beringia, including ice-free parts of Alaska, at a much earlier date, possibly 40,000 years ago,[54][55][56] followed by a much later second wave of immigrants.[52][57]
The
The archaeological sites in the Americas with the oldest dates that have gained broad acceptance are all compatible with an age of about 15,000 years. This includes the
It has often been suggested that an ice-free corridor, in what is now Western Canada, would have allowed migration before the beginning of the Holocene. However, a 2016 study has argued against this, suggesting that the peopling of North America via such a corridor is unlikely to significantly pre-date the earliest Clovis sites. The study concludes that the ice-free corridor in what is now Alberta and British Columbia "was gradually taken over by a boreal forest dominated by spruce and pine trees" and that the "Clovis people likely came from the south, not the north, perhaps following wild animals such as bison".[59][60] An alternative hypothesis for the peopling of America is coastal migration, which may have been feasible along the deglaciated (but now submerged) coastline of the Pacific Northwest from about 16,000 years ago.
Evidence for pre-LGM human presence
Pre-LGM migration across Beringia has been proposed to explain purported pre-LGM ages of archaeological sites in the Americas such as
At Old Crow Flats, mammoth bones have been found that are broken in distinctive ways indicating human butchery. The radiocarbon dates on these vary between 25,000 and 40,000 BP. Also, stone microflakes have been found in the area indicating tool production.[62] However, the interpretations of butcher marks and the geologic association of bones at the Bluefish Cave and Old Crow Flats sites, and the related Bonnet Plume site, have been called into question.[29] No evidence of human remains have been discovered at these sites. In addition to disputed archaeological sites, support for pre-LGM human presence has been found in lake sediment records of northern Alaska. Biomarker and microfossil analyses of sediments from Lake E5 and Burial Lake in suggest human presence in eastern Beringia as early as 34,000 years ago.[44][45] These analyses are indeed compelling in that they corroborate the inferences made from the Bluefish Cave and Old Crow Flats sites.
In 2020, evidence emerged for a new pre-LGM site in North-Central Mexico. Chiquihuite cave, an archaeological site in Zacatecas State, has been dated to 26,000 years BP based on numerous lithic artefacts discovered there.[63] However, there is scholarly debate over whether the artifacts should be considered evidence of human activity or if they were formed naturally.[64][28] No evidence of human DNA or hearth have been unearthed.[65]
Pre-LGM human presence in South America rests partly on the chronology of the controversial Pedra Furada rock shelter in Piauí, Brazil. More recently, studies at the archaeological sites Santa Elina (27000-10000 years BP) in the midwest, and Rincão I (20000-12000 years BP)[66] in southeastern Brazil also show associations of evidence of human presence with sediments dating from before the LGM. A 2003 study dated evidence for the controlled use of fire to before 40,000 years ago.[67] Additional evidence has been adduced from the morphology of Luzia Woman fossil, which was described as Australo-Melanesian. This interpretation was challenged in a 2003 review which concluded the features in question could also have arisen by genetic drift.[68] In November 2018, scientists of the University of São Paulo and Harvard University released a study that contradicts the alleged Australo-Melanesian origin of Luzia. Using DNA sequencing, the results showed that Luzia's ancestry was entirely Native American.[69][70]
Stones described as probable tools,
The
A 2021 discovery of human footprints in relict lake sediments near White Sands National Park in New Mexico suggest a human presence dating back to the LGM between 18,000 and 26,000 years ago.[48][49] Later studies, reported in October 2023, confirmed that the age of the human footprints to be "up to 23,000 years old".[76][77]
The Clovis-first advocates have not accepted the veracity of these findings. In 2022, they said, "The oldest evidence for archaeological sites in the New World with large numbers of artifacts occurring in discrete and minimally disturbed stratigraphic contexts occur in eastern Beringia between 13,000 and 14,200 BP. South of the ice sheets, the oldest such sites occur in association with the Clovis complex. If humans managed to breach the continental ice sheets significantly before 13,000 BP, there should be clear evidence for it in the form of at least some stratigraphically discrete archaeological components with a relatively high artifact count. So far, no such evidence exists."[78]
Genomic age estimates
Genetic studies have used high resolution analytical techniques applied to DNA samples from modern Native Americans and Asian populations regarded as their source populations to reconstruct the development of
A study of the diversification of mtDNA Haplogroups C and D from southern Siberia and eastern Asia, respectively, suggests that the parent lineage (Subhaplogroup D4h) of Subhaplogroup D4h3, a lineage found among Native Americans and Han Chinese,
Megafaunal migrations
Although there is no archaeological evidence that can be used to direct support a coastal migration route during the Last Glacial Maximum, genetic analysis has been used to support this thesis. In addition to human genetic lineage, megafaunal DNA lineage can be used to trace movements of megafauna – large mammalian – as well as the early human groups who hunted them.
The grey wolf originated in the Americas and migrated into Eurasia prior to the Last Glacial Maximum – during which it was believed that remaining populations of the grey wolf residing in North America faced extinction and were isolated from the rest of the population. This, however, may not be the case. Radiocarbon dating of ancient grey wolf remains found in permafrost deposits in Alaska show a continuous exchange of population from 12,500 radiocarbon years BP to beyond radiocarbon dating capabilities. This indicates that there was viable passage for grey wolf populations to exchange between the two continents.[88]
These faunas' ability to exchange populations during the period of the Last Glacial Maximum along with genetic evidence found from early human remains in the Americas provides evidence to support pre-Clovis migrations into the Americas.
Source populations
The Native American source population was formed in Siberia by the mixing of two distinct populations:
One theory supposes that Ancient North Eurasians migrated south to
However, a third theory, the "Beringian standstill hypothesis", suggests that East Asians instead migrated north to Northeastern Siberia, where they mixed with ANE, and later diverged in Beringia, where distinct Native American lineages formed. This theory is supported by
However, the Beringian standstill hypothesis is not supported by
A 2019 study suggested that Native Americans are the closest living relatives to 10,000-year-old fossils found near the
A study published in July 2022 suggested that people in southern China may have contributed to the Native American gene pool, based on the discovery and DNA analysis of 14,000-year-old human fossils.[97][98]
The contrast between the genetic profiles of the Hokkaido Jōmon skeletons and the modern Ainu illustrates another uncertainty in source models derived from modern DNA samples.[99]
Mitochondrial (mtDNA) lineages
The development of high-resolution genomic analysis has provided opportunities to further define Native American subclades and narrow the range of Asian subclades that may be parent or sister subclades.
The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Native American populations has long been recognized, along with the presence of
With further definition of subclades related to Native American populations, the requirements for sampling Asian populations to find the most closely related subclades grow more specific. Subhaplogroups D1 and D4h3 have been regarded as Native American specific based on their absence among a large sampling of populations regarded as potential descendants of source populations, over a wide area of Asia.
Subhaplogroup D1a has also been found among ancient
Subhaplogroup D4h3 has been identified among Han Chinese.[80][81] Subhaplogroup D4h3 from China does not have the same geographic implication as Subhaplotype D1a from Amur-Hokkaido, so its implications for source models are more speculative. Its parent lineage, Subhaplotype D4h, is believed to have emerged in East Asia, rather than Siberia, around 20,000 BP.[82] Subhaplogroup D4h2, a sister clade of D4h3, has also been found among Jōmon skeletons from Hokkaido.[103] D4h3 has a coastal trace in the Americas.[81]
X is one of the five mtDNA haplogroups found in Indigenous Americans. Native Americans mostly belong to the X2a clade, which has never been found in the
HTLV-1 genomics
The Human T cell Lymphotrophic Virus 1 (
The Ainu have developed antibodies to HTLV-1, indicating its endemicity to the Ainu and its antiquity in Japan.
Physical anthropology
Paleo-Indian skeletons in the Americas such as
Other anthropologists advocate an alternative hypothesis that evolution of an original Beringian phenotype gave rise to a distinct morphology that was similar in all known Paleoamerican skulls, followed by later convergence towards the modern Native American phenotype.[117][118]
Archaeogenetic studies do not support a two-wave model or the Paleoamerican hypothesis of an Australo-Melanesian origin, and firmly assign all Paleo-Indians and modern Native Americans to one ancient population that entered the Americas in a single migration from Beringia. Only in one ancient specimen (Lagoa Santa) and a few modern populations in the Amazon region, a small Australasian ancestry component of c. 3% was detected, which remains unexplained by the current state of research (as of 2021[update]), but may be explained by the presence of the more basal
A report published in the
Stemmed points
Stemmed points are a lithic technology distinct from Beringian and Clovis types. They have a distribution ranging from coastal East Asia to the Pacific coast of South America.[42] The emergence of stemmed points has been traced to Korea during the upper Paleolithic.[121] The origin and distribution of stemmed points have been interpreted as a cultural marker related to a source population from coastal East Asia.[42]
Migration routes
Interior route
Clovis-First theory
Historically, theories about migration into the Americas have revolved around migration from Beringia through the interior of North America. The discovery of artifacts in association with Pleistocene faunal remains near
Recent radiocarbon dating of Clovis sites has yielded ages of between 13,000 and 12,600 BP, somewhat later than dates derived from older techniques.[122] The re-evaluation of earlier radiocarbon dates led to the conclusion that no fewer than 11 of the 22 Clovis sites with radiocarbon dates are "problematic" and should be disregarded, including the type site in Clovis, New Mexico. Numerical dating of Clovis sites has allowed comparison of Clovis dates with dates of other archaeological sites throughout the Americas, and of the opening of the ice-free corridor. Both lead to significant challenges to the Clovis First theory. The Monte Verde site of Southern Chile has been dated at 14,800 BP.[47] The Paisley Cave site in eastern Oregon yielded a 14,500 BP, on a coprolite with human DNA and radiocarbon dates of 13,200 and 12,900 BP on horizons containing western stemmed points.[123] Artifact horizons with non-Clovis lithic assemblages and pre-Clovis ages occur in eastern North America, although the maximum ages tend to be poorly constrained.[58][124]
Lithic evidence of pre-Clovis migrations
Geological findings on the timing of the ice-free corridor also challenge the notion that Clovis and pre-Clovis human occupation of the Americas was a result of migration through that route following the Last Glacial Maximum. Pre-LGM closing of the corridor may approach 30,000 BP and estimates of ice retreat from the corridor are in the range of 13,000 to 12,000 years ago.[31][32][33] Viability of the corridor as a human migration route has been estimated at 11,500 BP, later than the ages of the Clovis and pre-Clovis sites.[33] Dated Clovis archaeological sites suggest a south-to-north spread of the Clovis culture.[31]
Pre-LGM migration into the interior has been proposed to explain pre-Clovis ages for archaeological sites in the Americas,[52][57] although pre-Clovis sites such as Meadowcroft Rock Shelter,[58][124] Monte Verde,[47] and Paisley Cave have not yielded confirmed pre-LGM ages.
There are many pre-Clovis sites in the American Southwest, particularly in the Mojave Desert. Lake Mojave quarries dating back to the Pleistocene hold lithic remains of Silver Lake projectile points and Lake Mojave projectile points. This indicates an interior movement into the region as early as 13,800 BP, if not earlier.[125]
Dené–Yeniseian language family proposal
A relationship between the
The
The Arctic Small Tool tradition source may have been the
The interior route is consistent with the spread of the Na-Dene language group[126] and subhaplogroup X2a into the Americas after the earliest paleoamerican migration.[81]
Nevertheless, some scholars suggest that the ancestors of western North Americans speaking Na-Dene languages made a coastal migration by boat.[128]
Pacific coastal route
The Pacific coastal migration theory proposes that people first reached the Americas via water travel, following coastlines from northeast Asia into the Americas, originally proposed in 1979 by Knute Fladmark as an alternative to the hypothetical migration through an ice-free inland corridor.[129] This model would help to explain the rapid spread to coastal sites extremely distant from the Bering Strait region, including sites such as Monte Verde in southern Chile and Taima-Taima in western Venezuela.
The very similar marine migration hypothesis is a variant of coastal migration; essentially its only difference is that it postulates that boats were the principal means of travel. The proposed use of boats adds a measure of flexibility to the chronology of coastal migration, because a continuous ice-free coast (16–15,000 calibrated years BP) would then not be required: Migrants in boats could have easily bypassed ice barriers and settled in scattered coastal refugia, before the deglaciation of the coastal land route was complete. A maritime-competent source population in coastal East Asia is an essential part of the marine migration hypothesis.[42][43]
A 2007 article in the Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology proposed a "kelp highway hypothesis", a variant of coastal migration based on the exploitation of kelp forests along much of the Pacific Rim from Japan to Beringia, the Pacific Northwest, and California, and as far as the Andean Coast of South America. Once the coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia had deglaciated about 16,000 years ago, these kelp forest (along with estuarine, mangrove, and coral reef) habitats would have provided an ecologically homogenous migration corridor, entirely at sea level, and essentially unobstructed. A 2016 DNA analysis of plants and animals suggest a coastal route was feasible.[130][131]
Mitochondrial subhaplogroup D4h3a, a rare subclade of D4h3 occurring along the west coast of the Americas, has been identified as a clade associated with coastal migration.[81] This haplogroup was found in a skeleton referred to as Anzick-1, found in Montana in close association with several Clovis artifacts, dated 12,500 years ago.[132]
Problems with evaluating coastal migration models
The coastal migration models provide a different perspective on migration to the New World, but they are not without their own problems: One such problem is that global sea levels have risen over 120 metres (390 ft)
See also
- Early human migrations
- Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
- List of first human settlements
- Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
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Further reading
- Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena, and Thomas Higham. (2020) "The timing and effect of the earliest human arrivals in North America." Nature 584.7819 (2020): 93-97. online
- Bradley, Bruce & S2CID 161534521.
- Bradley, Bruce & Stanford, Dennis J. (2006). "The Solutrean-Clovis connection: reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel". S2CID 162205534.
- Stanford, Dennis J.; Bradley, Bruce (2012). Pre-Clovis First Americans: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22783-5.
- Stanford, Dennis J. & Bradley, Bruce A. (2013). Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27578-2.
- Dixon, E. James (1993). Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. University of New Mexico. ISBN 978-0-8263-1406-2.
- Dixon, E. James (1999). Bones, Boats & Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-2138-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4757-5042-3.
- Erlandson, Jon M. (2001). "The Archaeology of Aquatic Adaptations: Paradigms for a New Millennium". Journal of Archaeological Research. 9 (4): 287–350. S2CID 11120840.
- Erlandson, Jon M. (2002). "Anatomically modern humans, maritime voyaging, and the Pleistocene colonization of the Americas". In Nina G. Jablonski (ed.). The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World. California Academy of Sciences. pp. 59–92. ISBN 978-0-940228-50-4.
- Erlandson, Jon. M.; Graham, M. H.; Bourque, Bruce J.; et al. (30 October 2007). "The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, The Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas". Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. 2 (2): 161–174. S2CID 140188874.
- Eshleman, Jason A.; Malhi, Ripan S. & Glenn Smith, David (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas". S2CID 17049337.
- Fedje, Daryl W. & Christensen, Tina (October 1999). "Modeling Paleoshorelines and Locating Early Holocene Coastal Sites in Haida Gwaii". S2CID 163478479.
- Greenman, E.F. (February 1963). "The Upper Palaeolithic and the New World". S2CID 144250630.
- Hey, Jody (25 May 2005). "On the Number of New World Founders: A Population Genetic Portrait of the Peopling of the Americas". PLOS Biology. 3 (6): e193. PMID 15898833.
- ISBN 978-0-940228-50-4.
- Jones, Peter N. (2005). Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Bauu Institute. ISBN 978-0-9721349-2-7.
- Korotayev, Andrey; Berezkin, Yuri E.; Borinskaya, Svetlana A.; Davletshin, Albert I.; Khaltourina, Daria A. (2017). "Which genes and myths did the different waves of the peopling of Americas bring to the New World?". In Leonid E. Grinin; Andrey V. Korotayev; Yuri E. Berezkin (eds.). History and Mathematics: Economy, Demography, Culture, and Cosmic Civilizations. ООО "Издательство "Учитель". pp. 9–77. ISBN 978-5-7057-5247-8.
- Lauber, Patricia (2003). Who Came First: New Clues to Prehistoric Americans. National Geographic Soc Childrens books. ISBN 978-0-7922-8228-0.
- Matson, R. G. & Coupland, Gary (2016). The Prehistory of the Northwest Coast. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-315-41739-4.
- Meltzer, David J. (2009). First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94315-5.
- Snow, Dean R. (1996). "The First Americans and the Differentiation of Hunter-Gatherer Cultures". In Bruce G. Trigger; Wilcomb E. Washburn (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: North America. Vol. 1: Part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–199. ISBN 978-0-521-57392-4.
- ISBN 0-691-11532-X.
External links
- The Paleoindian Database – The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology.
- "When Did Humans Come to the Americas?" – Smithsonian Magazine February 2013 Archived 2013-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
- The Paleoindian Period – United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service
- Shepard Krech III, Paleoindians and the Great Pleistocene Die-Off – American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Humanities Center, 2008.
- Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie) on National Geographic Channel, 2003 – 120 Minutes, UPC/EAN: 841887001267