Seven Years' War

Between 10 and 17 October 1757, a Hungarian general, Count András Hadik, serving in the Austrian army, executed what may be the most famous hussar action in history. When the Prussian king, Frederick, was marching south with his powerful armies, the Hungarian general unexpectedly swung his force of 5,000, mostly hussars, around the Prussians and occupied part of their capital, Berlin, for one night.^[64] The city was spared for a negotiated ransom of 200,000 thalers.^[64] When Frederick heard about this humiliating occupation, he immediately sent a larger force to free the city. Hadik, however, left the city with his hussars and safely reached the Austrian lines. Subsequently, Hadik was promoted to the rank of marshal in the Austrian Army.

In early 1758, Frederick launched an invasion of Moravia and laid siege to Olmütz (now Olomouc, Czech Republic).^[65] Following an Austrian victory at the Battle of Domstadtl that wiped out a supply convoy destined for Olmütz, Frederick broke off the siege and withdrew from Moravia. It marked the end of his final attempt to launch a major invasion of Austrian territory.^[66] In January 1758, the Russians invaded East Prussia, where the province, almost denuded of troops, put up little opposition.^[57] East Prussia had been occupied by Russian forces over the winter and would remain under their control until 1762, although it was far less strategically valuable to Prussia than Brandenburg or Silesia. In any case, Frederick did not see the Russians as an immediate threat and instead entertained hopes of first fighting a decisive battle against Austria that would knock them out of the war.

In April 1758, the British concluded the Anglo-Prussian Convention with Frederick in which they committed to pay him an annual subsidy of £670,000. Britain also dispatched 9,000 troops to reinforce Ferdinand's Hanoverian army, the first British troop commitment on the continent and a reversal in the policy of Pitt. Ferdinand's Hanoverian army, supplemented by some Prussian troops, had succeeded in driving the French from Hanover and Westphalia and re-captured the port of Emden in March 1758 before crossing the Rhine with his own forces, which caused alarm in France. Despite Ferdinand's victory over the French at the Battle of Krefeld and the brief occupation of Düsseldorf, he was compelled by the successful manoeuvering of larger French forces to withdraw across the Rhine.^[67]

By this point Frederick was increasingly concerned by the Russian advance from the east and marched to counter it. Just east of the Oder in Brandenburg-Neumark, at the Battle of Zorndorf (now Sarbinowo, Poland), a Prussian army of 35,000 men under Frederick on 25 August 1758, fought a Russian army of 43,000 commanded by Count William Fermor.^[68] Both sides suffered heavy casualties—the Prussians 12,800, the Russians 18,000—but the Russians withdrew after battle, and Frederick claimed victory.^[69] The American historian Daniel Marston described Zorndorf as a "draw" as both sides were too exhausted and had taken such losses that neither wished to fight another battle with the other.^[70] In the undecided Battle of Tornow on 25 September, a Swedish army repulsed six assaults by a Prussian army but did not push on Berlin following the Battle of Fehrbellin.^[71]

The war was continuing indecisively when on 14 October Marshal Daun's Austrians surprised the main Prussian army at the

Prussia suffered several defeats in 1759. At the Battle of Kay, or Paltzig, the Russian Count Saltykov with 40,000 Russians defeated 26,000 Prussians commanded by General Carl Heinrich von Wedel. Though the Hanoverians defeated an army of 60,000 French at Minden, Austrian general Daun forced the surrender of an entire Prussian corps of 13,000 in the Battle of Maxen. Frederick himself lost half his army in the Battle of Kunersdorf (now Kunowice, Poland), the worst defeat in his military career and one that drove him to the brink of abdication and thoughts of suicide. The disaster resulted partly from his misjudgment of the Russians, who had already demonstrated their strength at Zorndorf and at Gross-Jägersdorf (now Motornoye, Russia), and partly from good cooperation between the Russian and Austrian forces. However, disagreements with the Austrians over logistics and supplies resulted in the Russians withdrawing east yet again after Kunersdorf, ultimately enabling Frederick to re-group his shattered forces.

The French

The year 1760 brought yet more Prussian disasters. The general

Despite this, the Austrians, under the command of General Laudon, captured Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) in Silesia. In the Battle of Liegnitz, Frederick scored a strong victory despite being outnumbered three to one. The Russians under General Saltykov and Austrians under General Lacy briefly occupied his capital, Berlin, in October but could not hold it for long. Still, the loss of Berlin to the Russians and Austrians was a great blow to Frederick's prestige as many pointed out that the Prussians had no hope of occupying temporarily or otherwise St. Petersburg or Vienna. In November 1760, Frederick was once more victorious, defeating the able Daun in the Battle of Torgau, but he suffered very heavy casualties, and the Austrians retreated in good order.

Meanwhile, after the battle of Kunersdorf, the Russian army was mostly inactive due mostly to their tenuous supply lines.^[75] Russian logistics were so poor that in October 1759, an agreement was signed under which the Austrians undertook to supply the Russians as the quartermaster's department of the Russian Army was badly strained by the demands of Russian armies operating so far from home.^[52] As it was, the requirement that the Austrian quartermaster's department supply both the Austrian and Russian armies proved beyond its capacity, and in practice, the Russians received little in the way of supplies from the Austrians.^[52] At Liegnitz (now Legnica, Poland), the Russians arrived too late to participate in the battle. They made two attempts to storm the fortress of Kolberg, but neither succeeded. The tenacious resistance of Kolberg allowed Frederick to focus on the Austrians instead of having to split his forces.

Prussia began the 1761 campaign with just 100,000 available troops, many of them new recruits, and its situation seemed desperate.^[76] However, the Austrian and Russian forces were also heavily depleted and could not launch a major offensive.^{[citation needed]}

In February 1761, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick surprised French troops at Langensalza and then advanced to besiege Cassel in March. He was forced to lift the siege and retreat after French forces regrouped and captured several thousand of his men at the Battle of Grünberg. At the Battle of Villinghausen, forces under Ferdinand defeated a 92,000-man French army.^{[citation needed]}

On the eastern front, progress was very slow. The Russian Army was heavily dependent upon its main magazines in Poland, and the Prussian Army launched several successful raids against them. One of them, led by general Platen in September resulted in the loss of 2,000 Russians, mostly captured, and the destruction of 5,000 wagons.^{[77][page needed]} Deprived of men, the Prussians had to resort to this new sort of warfare, raiding, to delay the advance of their enemies. Frederick's army, though depleted, was left unmolested at its headquarters in Brunzelwitz, as both the Austrians and the Russians were hesitant to attack it. Nonetheless, at the end of 1761, Prussia suffered two critical setbacks. The Russians under Zakhar Chernyshev and Pyotr Rumyantsev stormed Kolberg in Pomerania, while the Austrians captured Schweidnitz. The loss of Kolberg cost Prussia its last port on the Baltic Sea.^[78] A major problem for the Russians throughout the war had always been their weak logistics, which prevented their generals from following up their victories, and now with the fall of Kolberg, the Russians could at long last supply their armies in Central Europe via the sea.^[79] The fact that the Russians could now supply their armies over the sea, which was considerably faster and safer (Prussian cavalry could not intercept Russian ships in the Baltic) than over the land threatened to swing the balance of power decisively against Prussia, as Frederick could not spare any troops to protect his capital.^[79] In Britain, it was speculated that a total Prussian collapse was now imminent.^{[citation needed]}

Britain now threatened to withdraw its subsidies if Frederick did not consider offering concessions to secure peace. As the Prussian armies had dwindled to just 60,000 men and with Berlin itself about to come under siege, the survival of both Prussia and its king was severely threatened. Then on 5 January 1762 the Russian Empress Elizabeth died. Her Prussophile successor, Peter III, at once ended the Russian occupation of East Prussia and Pomerania (see: the Treaty of Saint Petersburg) and mediated Frederick's truce with Sweden. He also placed a corps of his own troops under Frederick's command. Frederick was then able to muster a larger army, of 120,000 men, and concentrate it against Austria.^{[77][page needed]} He drove them from much of Silesia after recapturing Schweidnitz, while his brother Henry won a victory in Saxony in the Battle of Freiberg (29 October 1762). At the same time, his Brunswick allies captured the key town of Göttingen and compounded this by taking Cassel.^{[citation needed]}

Two new countries entered the war in 1762. Britain declared war against Spain on 4 January 1762; Spain reacted by issuing its own declaration of war against Britain on 18 January.^[80] Portugal followed by joining the war on Britain's side. Spain, aided by the French, launched an invasion of Portugal and succeeded in capturing Almeida. The arrival of British reinforcements stalled a further Spanish advance, and in the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara British-Portuguese forces overran a major Spanish supply base. The invaders were stopped on the heights in front of Abrantes (called the pass to Lisbon) where the Anglo-Portuguese were entrenched. Eventually the Anglo-Portuguese army, aided by guerrillas and practising a scorched earth strategy,^[81][82][83] chased the greatly reduced Franco-Spanish army back to Spain,^[84][85][86] recovering almost all the lost towns, among them the Spanish headquarters in Castelo Branco full of wounded and sick that had been left behind.^[87]

Meanwhile, the long British naval blockade of French ports had sapped the morale of the French populace. Morale declined further when news of defeat in the Battle of Signal Hill in Newfoundland reached Paris.^[88] After Russia's about-face, Sweden's withdrawal and Prussia's two victories against Austria, Louis XV became convinced that Austria would be unable to re-conquer Silesia (the condition for which France would receive the Austrian Netherlands) without financial and material subsidies, which Louis was no longer willing to provide. He therefore made peace with Frederick and evacuated Prussia's Rhineland territories, ending France's involvement in the war in Germany.^[89]

By 1763, the war in central Europe was essentially a stalemate between Prussia and Austria. Prussia had retaken nearly all of Silesia from the Austrians after Frederick's narrow victory over Daun at the Battle of Burkersdorf. After his brother Henry's 1762 victory at the Battle of Freiberg, Frederick held most of Saxony but not its capital, Dresden. His financial situation was not dire, but his kingdom was devastated, and his army severely weakened. His manpower had dramatically decreased, and he had lost so many effective officers and generals that an offensive against Dresden seemed impossible.^[42] British subsidies had been stopped by the new prime minister, John Stuart (Lord Bute), and the Russian emperor had been overthrown by his wife, Catherine, who ended Russia's alliance with Prussia and withdrew from the war. Austria, however, like most participants, was facing a severe financial crisis and had to decrease the size of its army, which greatly affected its offensive power.^[42] Indeed, after having effectively sustained a long war, its administration was in disarray.^{[90][page needed]} By that time, it still held Dresden, the southeastern parts of Saxony, and the county of Glatz in southern Silesia, but the prospect of victory was dim without Russian support, and Maria Theresa had largely given up her hopes of re-conquering Silesia; her Chancellor, husband and eldest son were all urging her to make peace, while Daun was hesitant to attack Frederick. In 1763 a peace settlement was reached at the Treaty of Hubertusburg, in which Glatz was returned to Prussia in exchange for the Prussian evacuation of Saxony. This ended the war in central Europe.

The stalemate had really been reached by 1759–1760, and Prussia and Austria were nearly out of money. The materiel of both sides had been largely consumed. Frederick was no longer receiving subsidies from Britain; the Golden Cavalry of St. George had produced nearly 13 million dollars (equivalent). He had melted and coined most of the church silver, had ransacked the palaces of his kingdom and coined that silver, and debased it by mixing it with copper. His banks' capital was exhausted, and he had pawned nearly everything of value from his own estate. While Frederick still had a significant amount of money left from the prior British subsidies, he hoped to use it to restore his kingdom's prosperity in peacetime; in any case, Prussia's population was so depleted that he could not sustain another long campaign.^{[91][page needed]} Similarly, Maria Theresa had reached the limit of her resources. She had pawned her jewels in 1758; in 1760, she approved a public subscription for support and urged her public to bring their silver to the mint. French subsidies were no longer provided.^{[91][page needed]} Although she had many young men still to draft, she could not conscript them and did not dare to resort to impressment, as Frederick had done.^{[92][page needed]} She had even dismissed some men because it was too expensive to feed them.^{[91][page needed]}

Great Britain planned a "descent" (an

Despite the debatable strategic success and the operational failure of the descent on Rochefort, William Pitt—who saw purpose in this type of asymmetric enterprise—prepared to continue such operations.

Pitt now prepared to send troops into Germany; and both Marlborough and Sackville, disgusted by what they perceived as the futility of the "descents", obtained commissions in that army. The elderly General Bligh was appointed to command a new "descent", escorted by Howe. The campaign began propitiously with the Raid on Cherbourg. Covered by naval bombardment, the army drove off the French force detailed to oppose their landing, captured Cherbourg, and destroyed its fortifications, docks and shipping.

The troops were reembarked and moved to the

The colonial conflict mainly between France and Britain took place in India, North America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, and coastal Africa. Over the course of the war, Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of the French and the Spanish Empires.

Great Britain lost

During the war, the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy were allied with the British. Native Americans of the Laurentian valley—the Algonquin, the Abenaki, the Huron and others—were allied with the French. Although the Algonquin tribes living north of the Great Lakes and along the St. Lawrence River were not directly concerned with the fate of the Ohio River Valley tribes, they had been victims of the Iroquois Confederation which included the Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora tribes of central New York. The Iroquois had encroached on Algonquin territory and pushed the Algonquins west beyond Lake Michigan and to the shore of the St. Lawrence.^[96] The Algonquin tribes were interested in fighting against the Iroquois. Throughout New England, New York and the north-west, Native American tribes formed differing alliances with the major belligerents.

In 1756 and 1757, the French captured Fort Oswego^[97] and Fort William Henry from the British.^[98] The latter victory was marred when France's native allies broke the terms of capitulation and attacked the retreating British column, which was under French guard, slaughtering and scalping soldiers and taking captive many men, women and children while the French refused to protect their captives.^[99] French naval deployments in 1757 also successfully defended the key Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island called Ile du Roi by the French, securing the seaward approaches to Quebec.^[100]

British Prime Minister William Pitt's focus on the colonies for the 1758 campaign paid off with the

On 13 September 1759, General James Wolfe led 5,000 troops up a goat path to the Plains of Abraham, 1 mile west of Quebec City. He had positioned his army between Montcalm's forces an hour's march to the east and

Seeing French and Indian defeat, in 1760, the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy resigned from the war and negotiated the Treaty of Kahnawake with the British. Among its conditions was their unrestricted travel between Canada and New York, as the nations had extensive trade between Montreal and Albany as well as populations living throughout the area.[107]

In 1762, towards the end of the war, French forces attacked St. John's, Newfoundland. If successful, the expedition would have strengthened France's hand at the negotiating table. Although they took St. John's and raided nearby settlements, the French forces were eventually defeated by British troops at the Battle of Signal Hill. This was the final battle of the war in North America, and it forced the French to surrender to Lieutenant Colonel William Amherst. The victorious British now controlled all of eastern North America.

The history of the Seven Years' War in North America, particularly the

In South America, the Portuguese conquered most of the Rio Negro valley,^[109][110] and repelled a Spanish attack on Mato Grosso (in the Guaporé River).^[111][112]

Between September 1762 and April 1763, Spanish forces led by

Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain had to return to Portugal the settlement of Colonia do Sacramento, while the vast and rich territory of the so-called "Continent of S. Peter" (the present-day Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul) would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared Hispano-Portuguese war of 1763–1777.^{[113][114][115][116]}

As consequence of the war the

In India, the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe renewed the long running conflict between the French and the British trading companies for influence on the subcontinent. The French allied themselves with the

Despite being one of the major European powers during this time, the Ottoman Empire was notably neutral during the Seven Years' War. Following their military stalemate with the Russian Empire and their subsequent victory over the Holy Roman Empire (and Austria to an extent), during the Austro-Russian-Turkish War (1735–1739), and the signing of the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed a generation of peace due to Austria and Russia contending with the rise of Prussia in Eastern Europe. During the war, King Frederick II of Prussia, better known to history as Frederick the Great, had made diplomatic overtures with the Ottoman Sultan, Mustafa III for years, up to the outbreak of war, to bring the empire into the war on the side of Prussia, Great Britain, and their other allies but he was unsuccessful. However, the Sultan was persuaded by his court not to join the war, primarily by his Grand Vizier, Koca Ragıb Pasha, who was quoted as saying.

"Our state looks like a majestic and mighty lion from afar. However, a closer look at this lion reveals that it has aged—its teeth have fallen out—its claws have fallen. So, let's leave this old lion to rest for a while."

Therefore, the Ottoman Empire avoided the major wars that would follow, including the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman Empire, or more accurately its leaders, recognised its internal problems. The previous wars had cost the empire greatly, both in terms of resources and finance, they were facing rebellions from nationalistic uprisings, notably from the Beyliks, and Persia had been reunited under Karim Khan Zand. That said, the Ottoman Empire would launch an abortive invasion of Hungary with 100,000 troops in 1763, contributing to the end of the war.^[123]

Persia ended up under the rule of the Zand dynasty during the period of the Seven Years' War. Like the Ottoman Empire, they were also neutral during the war. They had more pressing matters to attend to. Karim Khan Zand, was busy playing politics and was in the process of legitimising his claim to the Persian throne by placing a puppet king on the throne, Ismail III, the grandson of the last Safavid king, in 1757.^[124] However, by 1760, he had managed to eliminate all other potential claimants to the throne as well as Ismail III and had established himself as the head of his own dynasty, the aforementioned Zand dynasty.^[125]

The

"Every new war is a step closer to taking away from the descendants the means of defence they need."

It was precisely for this reason that

Despite British threats, the detention of many Dutch merchant ships by the British, and various incidents, as when Dutch soldiers stationed in the Austrian Netherlands fired celebratory gunshots in support of the Prussians after the Battle of Breslau, the Dutch Republic managed to preserve its neutrality during the Seven Years' War. It owed this to the memory of what it had been and what it could possibly become again, namely a land and naval power of the first rank. For the Prussian king, the Republic was an important ally with view of securing his scattered possessions along the Dutch eastern border, and for George II, the Dutch seaports provided the most secure link with Hanover. For their part, the British were concerned that their supremacy at sea would be jeopardised if the Republic were to lend its cooperation to a French plan for joint maritime action by the French, Spanish, Danish and Dutch fleets. In addition, the government in London had not yet given up hope to restore the disrupted relationship with the Dutch by including them in a military and political bloc formed by Britain, Hanover, Prussia and the Dutch Republic. When the States of Holland announced in the States General on 12 January 1759 that they had decided to equip 25 warships, at their own expense if need be, and Princess Anna also died that same evening, the British government realised that it should not let things get out of hand by inflicting too much damage on Dutch trade. It resigned itself to the fact that the Republic persisted in its neutral stance.^[127][128]

Unofficially, the Dutch East India Company would attempt to

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Treaty of Paris (1763)

The Anglo-French hostilities were ended in 1763 by the

In India, the British retained the Northern Circars, but returned all the French trading ports. The treaty, however, required that the fortifications of these settlements be destroyed and never rebuilt, while only minimal garrisons could be maintained there, thus rendering them worthless as military bases. Combined with the loss of France's ally in Bengal and the defection of Hyderabad to the British as a result of the war, this effectively brought French power in India to an end, making way for British hegemony and eventual control of the subcontinent.^[132] France's navy was crippled by the war. Only after an ambitious rebuilding program in combination with Spain was France again able to challenge Britain's command of the sea.^[133]

Bute's settlement with France was mild compared with what Pitt's would have been. He had hoped for a lasting peace with France, and he was afraid that if he took too much, the whole of Europe would unite in envious hostility against Great Britain. Choiseul, however, had no intention of making a permanent peace, and, when France went to war with Great Britain during the American Revolution, the British found no support among the European powers.^[134] France's defeat caused the French to embark upon major military reforms, with particular attention being paid to the artillery.^[135] The origins of the famed French artillery that played a prominent role in the wars of the French Revolution and beyond can to be traced to military reforms that started in 1763.^[135]

The Treaty of Hubertusburg, between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, was signed on 15 February 1763, at a hunting lodge between Dresden and Leipzig. Negotiations had started there on 31 December 1762. Frederick, who had considered ceding East Prussia to Russia if Peter III helped him secure Saxony, finally insisted on excluding Russia (in fact, no longer a belligerent) from the negotiations. At the same time, he refused to evacuate Saxony until its elector had renounced any claim to reparation. The Austrians wanted at least to retain Glatz, which they had in fact reconquered, but Frederick would not allow it. The treaty simply restored the status quo of 1748, with Silesia and Glatz reverting to Frederick and Saxony to its own elector. The only concession that Prussia made to Austria was to consent to the election of Archduke Joseph as Holy Roman emperor. Saxony emerged from the war weakened and bankrupt; despite losing no territory, Saxony had essentially been a battleground between Prussia and Austria throughout the conflict, with many of its towns and cities (including the capital of Dresden) damaged by bombardment and looting.

Austria was not able to retake Silesia or make any significant territorial gain. However, it did prevent Prussia from invading parts of Saxony. More significantly, its military performance proved far better than during the War of the Austrian Succession and seemed to vindicate Maria Theresa's administrative and military reforms. Hence, Austria's prestige was restored in great part and the empire secured its position as a major player in the European system.^{[136][page needed]} Also, by promising to vote for Joseph II in the Imperial elections, Frederick II accepted the Habsburg preeminence in the Holy Roman Empire. The survival of Prussia as a first-rate power and the enhanced prestige of its king and army, however, was potentially damaging in the long run to Austria's influence in Germany.

Not only that, Austria now found herself estranged with the new developments within the empire itself. Besides the rise of Prussia,

Prussia emerged from the war as a great power whose importance could no longer be challenged. Frederick the Great's personal reputation was enormously enhanced, as his debt to fortune (Russia's betrayal after Elizabeth's death) and to British financial support were soon forgotten, while the memory of his energy and his military genius was strenuously kept alive.^[135] Though depicted as a key moment in Prussia's rise to greatness, the war weakened Prussia.^[135] Prussia's lands and population were devastated though Frederick's extensive agrarian reforms and encouragement of immigration soon solved both these problems. Unfortunately for Prussia, its army had taken heavy losses (particularly the officer corps) and in the war's aftermath, Frederick could not afford to rebuild the Prussian Army to what it was before the war.^[135] In the War of the Bavarian Succession, the Prussians fought poorly despite being led by Frederick in person.^[135] During the war with France in 1792–95, the Prussian Army did not fare well against revolutionary France, and in 1806, the Prussians suffered a complete defeat by the French at the Battle of Jena.^[135] It was only after 1806 when Prussian government brought in reforms to recover from the disaster of Jena that Prussia's rise to greatness later in the 19th century was realized.^[135] However, in the aftermath of the Seven Years' War, various nations all sent officers to Prussia to learn the secrets of Prussia's military power.^[135] Prussia become one of the most imitated powers in Europe.^[135]

Russia, on the other hand, made one great invisible gain from the war: the elimination of French influence in Poland. The First Partition of Poland (1772) was to be a Russo-Prussian transaction, with Austria only reluctantly involved and with France completely absent.^[134] Though the war had ended in a draw, the performance of the Imperial Russian Army against Prussia had improved Russia's reputation as a factor in European politics, as many had not expected the Russians to hold their own against the Prussians in campaigns fought on Prussian soil.^[135] The American historian David Stone observed that Russian soldiers proved capable of going head-on against the Prussians, inflicting and taking one bloody volley after another "without flinching", and though the quality of Russian generalship was quite variable, the Russians were never decisively defeated once in the war.^[53] The Russians defeated the Prussians several times in the war, but the Russians lacked the necessary logistical capability to follow up their victories with lasting gains, and in this sense, the salvation of the House of Hohenzollern was due more to Russian weakness with respect to logistics than to Prussian strength on the battlefield.^[137] Still, the fact that the Russians proved capable of defeating in battle the army of a "first-rate" European power on its own soil despite the often indifferent quality of their generals improved Russia's standing in Europe.^[53] A lasting legacy of the war was that it awakened the Russians to their logistic weaknesses, and led to major reforms of the Imperial Russian Army's quartermaster department.^[138] The supply system that would allow the Russians to advance into the Balkans during the war with the Ottomans in 1787–1792, Marshal Alexander Suvorov to campaign effectively in Italy and Switzerland in 1798–1799, and for the Russians to fight across Germany and France in 1813–1814 to take Paris was created directly in response to the logistic problems experienced by the Russians in the Seven Years' War.^[138]

The British government was close to bankruptcy, and Britain now faced the delicate task of pacifying its new French-Canadian subjects as well as the many American Indian tribes who had supported France. In 1763,

The war also brought to an end the "Old System" of alliances in Europe.^[144] In the years after the war, under the direction of John Montagu (Lord Sandwich), the British attempted to re-establish this system. But after her surprising grand success against a coalition of great powers, European states such as Austria, the Dutch Republic, Sweden, Denmark–Norway, the Ottoman Empire and Russia, now saw Britain as a greater threat than France and did not join with it, while the Prussians were angered by what they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently, when the American Revolutionary War turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.^[145]

• The novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844) by William Makepeace Thackeray is set against the Seven Years' War. This is a quote about the war from the novel:

It would require a greater philosopher and historian than I am to explain the causes of the famous Seven Years' War in which Europe was engaged; and, indeed, its origin has always appeared to me to be so complicated, and the books written about it so amazingly hard to understand, that I have seldom been much wiser at the end of a chapter than at the beginning, and so shall not trouble my reader with any personal disquisitions concerning the matter.^[148]

• Stanley Kubrick's film Barry Lyndon (1975) is based on the Thackeray novel.
• The events in the early chapters of Voltaire's Candide are based on the Seven Years' War; according to Jean Starobinski ("Voltaire's Double-Barreled Musket", in Blessings in Disguise (California, 1993). p. 85), all the atrocities described in Chapter 3 are true to life. When Candide was written, Voltaire had been opposed to militarism; the book's themes of disillusionment and suffering underscore this position.
• The board games Friedrich and, more recently, Prussia's Defiant Stand and Clash of Monarchs are based on the events of the Seven Years' War.
• The grand strategy wargame Rise of Prussia covers the European campaigns of the Seven Years' War
• The novel The Last of the Mohicans (1826) by James Fenimore Cooper, and its subsequent adaptations, are set in the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.
• The Partisan in War (1789), a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich, is based on his experiences in the Seven Years' War.
• The Seven Years' War is the central theme of G. E. Lessing's 1767 play Minna von Barnhelm or the Soldiers' Happiness.
• Numerous towns and other places now in United States were named after Frederick the Great to commemorate the victorious conclusion of the war, including Frederick, Maryland, and King of Prussia, Pennsylvania.
• The fourth scenario of the second act in the RTS Age of Empires III is about this military conflict, with the player fighting alongside the French against the British.
• In the video game
  Haytham Kenway are set during the North American campaigns of the French and Indian War from 1754 to 1755. The second half of Assassin's Creed Rogue
  (2014) is also set within the timescale of the Seven Years' War, from 1756 to 1760.
• Several installments of Diana Gabaldon's fictional Lord John series (itself an offshoot of the Outlander series) describe a homosexual officer's experiences in Germany and France during the Seven Years' War. In particular, the short story "Lord John and the Succubus" occurs just before the Battle of Rossbach, and the novel Lord John and the Brotherhood of the Blade centres around the Battle of Krefeld.

See also

• France in the Seven Years' War
• French India
• List of wars and battles involving Prussia
• International relations (1648–1814)
• Outline of war
• Rule of 1756

Notes

Explanatory notes

1. ^ ^{a b} From 1762^[1]
2. Austrian Monarchy^[6]
3. ^ Only dead according to Danley or dead and wounded according to Uralanis
4. ^ The Franco-Dutch War, Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession

Citations

1. ^ Kohn (2000), p. 417.
2. ^ "British History in depth: Was the American Revolution Inevitable?". BBC History. Retrieved 21 July 2018. In 1763, Americans joyously celebrated the British victory in the Seven Years' War, revelling in their identity as Britons and jealously guarding their much-celebrated rights which they believed they possessed by virtue of membership in what they saw as the world's greatest empire.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Danley (2012), p. 524.
4. ^ Uralanis (1960), p. 59.
5. ^ Uralanis (1960), p. 60.
6. ^ Speelman (2012), p. 524.
7. ^ Uralanis (1960), p. 56.
8. ^ Füssel (2010), p. 7.
9. ^ Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present. London: William Heinemann, 2006.
10. ^ Anderson (2007), p. 17.
11. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 5–7.
12. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 51–65.
13. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 112–115.
14. ^ Anderson (2007), p. 114.
15. ^ Anderson2006, p. 77.
16. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 119–120.
17. ^ Szabo (2007), p. 2.
18. ^ ^{a b} Black (1994), pp. 38–52
19. ^ Black (1994), pp. 67–80
20. ^ Clark (2006), p. 209
21. ^ Creveld (1977), pp. 26–28
22. ISBN 978-0-521-82742-3
    .
23. ^ Dull (2007), p. 14.
24. ^
    ISBN 978-0-06-076184-4
    .
25. ISBN 978-0-416-37490-2
    .
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52. ^ ^{a b c d e} Marston (2001), p. 22.
53. ^ ^{a b c d} Stone (2006), p. 70.
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55. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 211–12.
56. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 176–177.
57. ^ ^{a b c} Marston (2001), p. 41.
58. ^ Asprey (1986), pp. 469–472.
59. ^ Asprey (1986), pp. 476–481.
60. ^ ^{a b} Marston (2001), p. 42.
61. ^ Asprey (1986), p. 473.
62. ^ Anderson (2007), pp. 215–216.
63. ^ Asprey (1986), p. 486.
64. ^ ^{a b} Asprey (1986), p. 467.
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66. ^ Szabo (2007), pp. 148–155.
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73. ^ Szabo (2007), pp. 195–202.
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142. ^ Marston (2002), p. 87.
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General and cited references

• Carl Johan Aminoff; Patrick Bruun (1994), Vardagsslit och sjuårskrig / upplevt och beskrivet av den nyländske dragonen Carl Johan Aminoff ; utgiven med kommentarer av Patrick Bruun.,
  Wikidata Q113529938
• ISBN 978-1-101-11775-0
  .
• Maslovsky, Dmitry (1886–1891). Русская армия в Семилетней войне [The Russian Army in the Seven Years' War] (in Russian). Moscow: Типография штаба войск Московского военного округа.
• Anderson, Fred (2007). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. Vintage –
  ISBN 978-0-307-42539-3
  .
• ISBN 978-0-89919-352-6
  . Popular biography.
• Baugh, Daniel. The Global Seven Years War, 1754–1763 (Pearson Press, 2011) 660 pp; online review in H-FRANCE;
• ISBN 978-1-85728-172-9
  .
• Blanning, Tim
  . Frederick the Great: King of Prussia (2016). scholarly biography.
• JSTOR 2117049
  .
• Browning, Reed. The Duke of Newcastle (Yale University Press, 1975).
• Carter, Alice Clare (1971). The Dutch Republic in Europe in the Seven Years' War. MacMillan.
• Charters, Erica. Disease, War, and the Imperial State: The Welfare of the British Armed Forces During the Seven Years' War (University of Chicago Press, 2014).
• ISBN 978-0-674-03196-8
  .
• Clodfelter, M. (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). Jefferson, NC:
  ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7
  .
• ISBN 978-1-908902-43-6
  . (Its focus is on naval history.)
• ISBN 978-0-521-21730-9
  .
• Crouch, Christian Ayne. Nobility Lost: French and Canadian Martial Cultures, Indians, and the End of New France. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014.
• The Royal Military Chronicle. Vol. V. London: J. Davis. 1812.
• Dodge, Edward J. (1998). Relief Is Greatly Wanted: The Battle of Fort William Henry. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books.
  OCLC 39400729
  .
• Danley, Mark (2012). The Seven Years' War: Global Views (History of Warfare). Brill.
  ISBN 978-9004234086
  .
• Dorn, Walter L. Competition for Empire, 1740–1763 (1940) focus on diplomacy free to borrow
• Duffy, Christopher
  . Instrument of War: The Austrian Army in the Seven Years War (2000); By Force of Arms: The Austrian Army in the Seven Years War, Vol II (2008)
• Dull, Jonathan R. (2007). The French Navy and the Seven Years' War. University of Nebraska Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8032-6024-5
  .
• Dull, Jonathan R. (2009). The Age of the Ship of the Line: the British and French navies, 1650–1851. University of Nebraska Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8032-1930-4
  .
• Fish, Shirley When Britain ruled the Philippines, 1762–1764: the story of the 18th-century British invasion of the Philippines during the Seven Years' War. 1st Books Library, 2003.
  ISBN 978-1-4107-1069-7
• Fowler, William H. (2005). Empires at War: The Seven Years' War and the Struggle for North America. Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre.
  ISBN 1-55365-096-4
  .
• Higgonet, Patrice Louis-René (March 1968). "The Origins of the Seven Years' War". The Journal of Modern History. 40. Journal of Modern History, 40.1: 57–90.
  S2CID 144559966
  .
• Hochedlinger, Michael (2003). Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797. London: Longwood.
  ISBN 0-582-29084-8
  .
• Katcher, Philip. Armies of the American Wars 1753-1815 (Osprey Publishing, 1975).
• Kaplan, Herbert. Russia and the Outbreak of the Seven Years' War (University of California Press, 1968).
• Keay, John
  . The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company. HarperCollins, 1993.
• Kohn, George C. (2000). Seven Years War in Dictionary of Wars. Facts on File.
  ISBN 978-0-8160-4157-2
  .
• Luvaas, Jay (1999). Frederick the Great on the Art of War. Boston: Da Capo.
  ISBN 978-0-306-80908-8
  .
• McLynn, Frank. 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World. (Jonathan Cape, 2004).
  ISBN 0-224-06245-X
• Mahan, Alexander J. (2011). Maria Theresa of Austria. Read Books.
  ISBN 978-1-4465-4555-3
  .
• Marley, David F. (2008). Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present. Vol. II. ABC-CLIO.
  ISBN 978-1-59884-101-5
  .
• ISBN 978-1-57958-343-9
  .
• Marston, Daniel (2002). The French and Indian War. Essential Histories. Osprey.
  ISBN 1-84176-456-6
  .
• Middleton, Richard. Bells of Victory: The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry & the Conduct of the Seven Years' War (1985), 251 pp.
• ISBN 978-1-59017-642-9
  .
• Nester, William R. The French and Indian War and the Conquest of New France (University of Oklahoma Press, 2014).
• Pocock, Tom. Battle for Empire: the very first World War 1756–1763 (1998).
• Redman, Herbert J. (2014). Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763. McFarland.
  ISBN 978-0-7864-7669-5
  .
• Robson, Martin. A History of the Royal Navy: The Seven Years War (IB Tauris, 2015).
• ISBN 978-0-393-32847-9
  .
• Schumann, Matt, and Karl W. Schweizer. The Seven Years War: A Transatlantic History. (Routledge, 2012).
• Schweizer, Karl W. (1989). England, Prussia, and the Seven Years War: Studies in Alliance Policies and Diplomacy.
  ISBN 978-0-88946-465-0
  .
• Smith, Digby George
  . Armies of the Seven Years' War: Commanders, Equipment, Uniforms and Strategies of the 'First World War' (2012).
• Speelman, P.J. (2012). Danley, M.H.; Speelman, P.J. (eds.). The Seven Years' War: Global Views. Brill.
  ISBN 978-90-04-23408-6
  .
• Stone, David (2006). A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya. New York: Praeger.
  ISBN 978-0-275-98502-8
  .
• Syrett, David. Shipping and Military Power in the Seven Year War, 1756–1763: The Sails of Victory (2005)
• Szabo, Franz A.J. (2007). The Seven Years' War in Europe 1756–1763.
  ISBN 978-0-582-29272-7
  .
• Wilson, Peter H. (2008). "Prussia as a Fiscal-Military State, 1640–1806". In Storrs, Christopher (ed.). The Fiscal-Military State in Eighteenth-Century Europe: Essays in honour of P.G.M. Dickson. Surrey: Ashgate. pp. 95–125.
  ISBN 978-0-7546-5814-6
  .
• Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2002). De Republiek der Verenigde Nederlanden als grote mogendheid: Buitenlandse politiek en oorlogvoering in de eerste helft van de achttiende eeuw en in het bijzonder tijdens de Oostenrijkse Successieoorlog (1740–1748) (in Dutch). De Bataafsche Leeuw.
  ISBN 90-6707-540-X
  .

Other languages

• Füssel, Marian (2010). Der Siebenjährige Krieg. Ein Weltkrieg im 18. Jahrhundert (in German). München: Beck.
  ISBN 978-3-406-60695-3
  .
• García Arenas, Mar (2004). "El periplo ibérico del general Dumouriez: Una aproximación a las relaciones diplomáticas hispano-portuguesas (1765–1767)" (PDF). Revista de Historia Moderna (in Spanish). 22. Universidad de Alicante: 403–430.
  ISSN 0212-5862
  .
• Terrage, Marc de Villiers du (1904). Les dernières années de la Louisiane française (in French). E. Guilmoto.
• de Ligne, Charles-Joseph, Prince, Mon Journal de la guerre de Sept Ans. Textes inédits introduits, établis et annotés par Jeroom Vercruysse et Bruno Colson (in French) (Paris, Editions Honoré Champion, 2008) (L'Âge des Lumières, 44).
• Van Nimwegen, Olaf (2017). De Nederlandse Burgeroorlog 1748–1815 (in Dutch). Amsterdam: Prometheus.
  ISBN 978-9035144293
  . (Sample of book used.)
• Cuyt, F., Jacobs, T., Van Gelder, K., & Vermeir, R. (2017). De Staatse Barrière in de tweede helft van de 18de eeuw: een rustig en vredig bezit?.
• Uralanis, Boris (1960). Войны и народонаселение Европы: людские потери вооруженных сил Европейских стран в XVII-XX веках [Wars and the population of Europe: human losses of the armed forces of European countries in the XVII-XX centuries] (in Russian). Moscow: Социально-экономическая литература.

Fiction

• ISBN 978-88-09-02093-1
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seven Years' War.

• The French Army 1600–1900
• Events and the participants in the Seven Years' War
• Seven Years' War timeline Archived 21 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
• Memorial University of Newfoundland's page about the war
• Kronoskaf.com: Seven Years' War Knowledge Base
• 1759: From the Warpath to the Plains of Abraham Virtual Exhibition.
• The Seven Years' War in Canada
• Clash of Empires and The Battle of the Plains of Abraham – The Canadian War Museum
• "Seven Years' War" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 715–723. Includes several battle maps.