Thunderstorm
Thunderstorm | |
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temperate regions. | |
Season | Most common in spring and summer. (in temperate regions) Common in wet season. (in tropical regions) |
Effect | Depends on the storm, may involve rain, hail, and/or high winds. May cause flooding or fires. |
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A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a
Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the
There are three types of thunderstorms:
Life cycle
Warm air has a lower
- Moisture
- An unstable airmass
- A lifting force (heat)
All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipation stage.[13][14] The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes.[15]
Developing stage
The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be
Mature stage
In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the
Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',[14] but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a supercell, where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.[18]
Dissipating stage
In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20–30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as a downburst. The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorm's further growth.[19] The downdraft hitting the ground creates an outflow boundary. This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes.[20]
Classification
There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and supercell.[7] Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ("wind shear"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20–30 minutes.
Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, normally greater than 25 knots (13 m/s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of the troposphere,[21] which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms,[7] most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation. Precipitable water values of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes.[22] Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in).[23] Upstream values of CAPE of greater than 800 J/kg are usually required for the development of organized convection.[24]
Single-cell
This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Also known as
Multi-cell clusters
This is the most common type of thunderstorm development. Mature thunderstorms are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side. Multicell storms form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines. While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms are stronger than the single-cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate-sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes.[15]
Multicell lines
A squall line is an elongated line of
Supercells
Supercell storms are large, usually
Severe thunderstorms
In the United States, a thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 in) in diameter or larger, or if funnel clouds or tornadoes are reported.[35][36][37] Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning. A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms.[38] Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However, multicell, supercell, and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.[18]
Mesoscale convective systems
A mesoscale convective system (MCS) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones, and normally persists for several hours or more.[39] A mesoscale convective system's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones, squall lines, lake-effect snow events, polar lows, and mesoscale convective complexes (MCCs), and they generally form near weather fronts. Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day.[14] They tend to form when the surface temperature varies by more than 5 °C (9 °F) between day and night.[40] The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours.[41][42]
Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the
Motion
The two major ways thunderstorms move are via
Back-building thunderstorm
A back-building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as a
Hazards
Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning[citation needed]. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.
Cloud-to-ground lightning
Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by lightning.
Hail
Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.[61] Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.[62] One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.[63] China also experiences significant hailstorms.[64] Across Europe, Croatia experiences frequent occurrences of hail.[65]
In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley".[66] Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming, is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.[67] In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia.
Hail can cause serious damage, notably to
Tornadoes and waterspouts
A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust.[72] Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 177 km/h), are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1 mi) across, and stay on the ground for more than 100 kilometres (dozens of miles).[73][74][75]
The
Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non-
Flash flood
Flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods.[80] These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding[81] and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall.[82] Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in arid regions as well as densely populated urban environments, where few plants, and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of landslide phenomena.
Downburst
Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes,[83] due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash.[14][83] Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight-horizontal winds.[14]
Thunderstorm asthma
Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by a local thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind. While larger pollen grains are usually filtered by hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma attack.[84][85][86][87]
Safety precautions
Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become
Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage.Preparedness
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year).[89] Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly.[90] Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury.[91]
The National Weather Service (NWS) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:[89]
- Know the names of local counties, cities, and towns, as these are how warnings are described.[89]
- Monitor forecasts and weather conditions and know whether thunderstorms are likely in the area.[92]
- Be alert for natural signs of an approaching storm.
- Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to avoid being caught outdoors when a storm hits).[92]
- Take action early so you have time to get to a safe place.[92]
- Get inside a substantial building or hard-topped metal vehicle before threatening weather arrives.[92]
- If you hear thunder, get to the safe place immediately.[92]
- Avoid open areas like hilltops, fields, and beaches, and do not be or be near the tallest objects in an area when thunderstorms are occurring.[89][92]
- Do not shelter under tall or isolated trees during thunderstorms.[92]
- If in the woods, put as much distance as possible between you and any trees during thunderstorms.[92]
- If in a group, spread out to increase the chances of survivors who could come to the aid of any victims from a lightning strike.[92]
Safety
While safety and preparedness often overlap, "thunderstorm safety" generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm. The American Red Cross recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress:[88]
- Take action immediately upon hearing thunder. Anyone close enough to the storm to hear thunder can be struck by lightning.[91]
- Avoid electrical appliances, including corded telephones.[88] Cordless and wireless telephones are safe to use during a thunderstorm.[91]
- Close and stay away from windows and doors, as glass can become a serious hazard in high wind.[88]
- Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing conducts electricity.
- If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the vehicle and avoid touching metal.[88]
The NWS stopped recommending the "lightning crouch" in 2008 as it does not provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.[92][93][94]
Frequent occurrences
Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the
Energy
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×108 kg of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 1015
The
Studies
In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring,
Mythology and religion
Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. Greeks believed that they were battles waged by Zeus, who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus. Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with the Thunderbird, who they believed was a servant of the Great Spirit. The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to fight Jötnar, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir. Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepts that fierce storms are the work of God. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.[106]
Martin Luther was out walking when a thunderstorm began, causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk.[107]
Outside of Earth
Thunderstorms, evidenced by flashes of
See also
- Barber's pole
- Continuous gusts
- Convective storm detection
- Hector (cloud)
- Severe thunderstorm warning and Severe thunderstorm watch
- Thundersnow
- Tornado warning
- Tornado watch
- Training (meteorology)
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Further reading
- Burgess, D. W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R. Desrochers, 1993: Tornado detection and warning by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 203–221.
- Corfidi, S. F., 1998: Forecasting MCS mode and motion. Preprints 19th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, American Meteorological Society, Minneapolis, Minnesota, pp. 626–629.
- Davies J. M. (2004). "Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells". Weather Forecast. 19 (4): 714–726. .
- Davies, J. M., and R. H. Johns, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, American Geophysical Union, 573–582.
- David, C. L. 1973: An objective of estimating the probability of severe thunderstorms. Preprint Eight conference of Severe Local Storms. Denver, Colorado, American Meteorological Society, 223–225.
- Doswell, C.A. III; Baker, D. V.; Liles, C. A. (2002). "Recognition of negative factors for severe weather potential: A case study". Weather Forecast. 17: 937–954. .
- Doswell, C.A., III, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns (1993): Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds), Geophys. Monogr. No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 557–571.
- Johns, R. H., J. M. Davies, and P. W. Leftwich, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards, Geophys. Mongr., No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 583–590.
- Evans, Jeffry S.,: Examination of Derecho Environments Using Proximity Soundings. NOAA.gov
- J. V. Iribarne and W.L. Godson, Atmospheric Thermodynamics, published by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1973
- M. K. Yau and R. R. Rogers, Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition, published by Butterworth-Heinemann, 1 January 1989, ISBN 0-7506-3215-1
External links
- Anatomy of a thunderstorm Archived 18 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology