Sex selection
Sex selection is the attempt to control the sex of the offspring to achieve a desired sex. It can be accomplished in several ways, both pre- and post-implantation of an embryo, as well as at childbirth. It has been marketed under the title family balancing.
According to the
- A preference for sons which stems from household structures "in which girls and women have a marginal social, economic and symbolic position, and consequently enjoy fewer rights."[1]These household structures also focus on security in which sons are expected to provide support to their parents throughout their life;
- Technological growth of prenatal diagnosis which allows parents to know the sex of their unborn child; and
- Low fertility which increases the need for sex selection by reducing the probability of having a daughter in smaller families.
The
Preference for sex of child
In many cultures, male offspring are desired in order to inherit property, carry on the family name and to provide support for parents in old age.[citation needed]
In countries such as
A 2009 study at the
Cultural son preference
There is a preference of parents to have a son over a daughter in many countries.[9] This can be observed through sex ratios of children in various countries.[9] Although biologically the sex ratio of children is around 95 girls to every 100 boys, this number generally evens out due to the higher infant mortality rate of boy infants.[9] Scholars argue that the expected birth sex ratio in a normal population is in the range of 103 to 107 males to females at birth.[10][11] However, in a number of countries of
Methods
Pre-implantation
Two major types of pre-implantation methods can be used for social sex selection. Both of them are based on actively rendering the second sex chromosome to be either a Y chromosome (resulting in a male), or an X chromosome (resulting in a female).[15]
The Ericsson method
The Ericsson method, first applied in a clinical setting in the 1970s by Dr. Ronald J. Ericsson, uses higher concentrations of sperm of the desired sex to increase the likelihood of conceiving that sex.[citation needed]
When used to increase the likelihood of a female child, studies have resulted in between 70% and 80% female children.[16][17][18]
When used to increase the likelihood of a male child, studies have resulted in between 50%[17] and 75% male children.[18]
Currently, approximately 50 gender selection centers in the United States use the Ericsson Method for artificial gender selection.[19]
The Ericsson method separates male and female sperm by passing them through a column filled with blood protein, human serum albumin. As the sperms enter the human serum albumin, the differences in mass between the X and Y chromosomes manifest as the lighter male sperms push deeper into the protein than the females dragged down by the weight of the extra "leg" of the X sex chromosome.[20] This tiny difference creates separate layers of concentrated male and female sperm. The layers of gender-selected sperm are of higher concentrations but not pure. This lack of purity explains the 30% chance of gender selection failure of the Ericsson method.[21]
IVF/PGD technique
After
Prior to fertilization with IVF, the fertilized eggs can be genetically biopsied with preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to increase fertilization success.[22] Once an embryo grows to a 6-8 cell size, a small laser incision in the egg membrane (zona pellucida) allows safe removal of one of the cells.[23] Every cell in the embryo contains an identical copy of the genome of the entire person. Removal of one of these cells does not harm the developing embryo.[24] A Geneticist then studies the chromosomes in the extracted cells for genetic defects and for a definite analysis of the embryo's sex.[25] Embryos of the desired sex and with acceptable genetics are then placed back into the mother.[citation needed]
The IVF/PGD technique is favored over the Ericsson method because of the stricter control of the sex of the offspring in the laboratory. Since only embryos of the desired sex are transferred to the mother, IVF/PGD avoids the small likelihood present in the Ericsson method of an undesired sperm fertilizing the egg. Sex selection success rates for IVF/PGD are very high. The technique is recommended for couples who will not accept a child of the undesired sex.[26][27]
Timing methods
Timing methods aim to affect the sex ratio of the resultant children by having sexual intercourse at specific times as related to ovulation. Studies have not been consistent about whether timing methods have any influence on the sex of the baby, with some showing no correlation[28] and others showing just the opposite.[29][30]
- The Landrum B. Shettles, proposes that sperm containing the X (female) chromosome are more resilient than sperm containing the Y (male) chromosome. The method advocates intercourse two to four days prior to ovulation. By the time ovulation occurs, the cervix should contain a higher concentration of female sperm still capable of fertilization (with most of the male sperm already dead). Intercourse close to ovulation, on the other hand, should increase the chances of conceiving a boy since the concentration of Y sperm will be higher at the height of the menstrual cycle.[31]
- The Whelan method is an "intercourse timing" method that advocates the opposite of the Shettles method. The Whelan method suggests intercourse four to six days prior to ovulation to increase the likelihood of fertilization by male sperm.[32]
Sperm sorting
Sperm sorting is an advanced technique that sorts sperm "in vitro" by
Post-implantation
Sex selection after implantation can be performed by prenatal sex discernment, followed by sex-selective abortion of any offspring of the unwanted sex. For prenatal sex discernment, a blood test can be taken from the mother for testing of small amounts of fetal DNA within it, and has been estimated to be reliable more than 98% of the time, as long as the samples are taken after the seventh week of pregnancy.[42][43]
Post-birth
Sex-selective child abandonment - Abandoning children of the unwanted sex. Though illegal in most parts of the world, it is still practiced.[citation needed]
Sex-selective adoption - Placing children of the unwanted sex up for adoption. Less commonly viewed as a method of social sex selection, adoption affords families that have a gender preference a legal means of choosing offspring of a particular sex.[citation needed]
Ethical concerns
The application of these techniques to humans creates moral and ethical concerns in the opinion of some, while the advantages of sensible use of selected technologies is favored by others.[citation needed]
In contrast, in an interview study, sex-selection technology providers generally argued that sex selection is an expression of
Post-conceptual selection by preimplantation testing (PGD) also involves preferential use of embryos, and termination of pregnancy for gender selection also raises many ethical questions of the abortion debate.[citation needed]
Demographic concerns
In addition to the ethical concerns mentioned, issues of
China's 'one child family' policy is considered largely responsible for the substantial imbalance of the sex ratio.[53] Chinese government reports show that the sex ratio for newborns is 118:100 (boys: girls), higher in rural areas such as Guangdong and Hainan (130:100) compared to the average of 104:100 in developed countries. It is believed that the ratio would increase further to the point that, by 2020, men of marriageable age would be unable to find mates, resulting in large social problems.[52][54]
Some nations, such as India, have attempted to curtail these gender imbalances with criminal statutes. In contrast, bioethicist
In contrast, actual experience in Western cultures provides no evidence for any degree of gender imbalance from technologies which have long been available and legal – such as selective abortion or preimplantation embryo testing. When used for family balancing indications in such countries as the United States, pre-conceptual sex selection is widely sought without any preferential selection of males. A 1993 survey of more than 2300 pregnant women in the British population found no overall preference for either sex. These findings are largely consistent with other surveys conducted in the US.[47] Thus the right of individual families to determine whether or not to balance gender of offspring in their families is not and will not become, in many countries, a demographic issue. Furthermore, in countries where such demographic issues exist because of strong gender preferences in a segment of the population, regulatory and legal control of, without denial of access to, sperm sorting technology can be utilized to provide individuals with choices while ensuring that equal numbers of boys and girls are produced for population demographic equality.[citation needed]
History and folk beliefs
Sex selection is not new.[55] There are a wide variety of social sex selections methods which have not been demonstrated to be effective. Because even implausible and ineffective methods have a success rate of 50%, many continued to be recommended by word of mouth.[citation needed]
The Greeks and Romans did not have a consistent theory of how sex was determined. Pliny the Elder claims that tying the right testicle of a ram will cause him to produce only females, but does not claim this about other creatures.[56] Pseudo-Plutarch lists many Greek theories of sex determination, including heat and cold, left and right testicles, left and right sides of the body, sperm crossing or not crossing from one side of the womb to the other, and the strength or dominance of various body parts.[57]
An 18th-century French book called The art of boys suggested an extreme method of ensuring children of one sex. The author suggests that one testicle and one ovary are intended for each sex. By removing a testicle or ovary, children of the other sex can be guaranteed.[58]
Since the ancient China, Chinese people use Chinese Gender Chart to predict and select baby's gender. Chinese Gender Calendar was buried in an imperial mausoleum with a history of over 300 years. It was calculated and deduced by the ancient Chinese based on Yin-Yang, Five Elements, Eight Diagrams and time.[59]
This calendar is a simple chart who matches the day of conception of the future child with the age of the mother at the day of conception. This table contains one more chance to conceive a boy. This may reflect the current female / male ratio.[60]
Census data from India show an imbalance in sex ratios among children in the early 20th century, such disparities almost always reflect a preference for sons.[55]
In the past, son preference may have resulted in the neglect or killing of female infants. However, since the early 1980s, ultrasounds and other technologies have enabled parents to detect the sex of a foetus during prenatal screenings. Those who prefer sons may arrange to abort female foetuses. This has accelerated sex-ratio imbalances at birth in parts of the world. It is estimated that, over the past generation, tens of millions of female foetuses have been aborted. Since the 1990s, some areas have seen up to 25 per cent more male births than female births.[55] Sperm sorting utilizes the technique of
Recently, a study published in 2006 indicated that mothers with toxoplasmosis have a significantly higher sex ratio of boys to girls. This has been discussed in connection with the manipulation hypothesis of parasites.[61] Another study found a link between sex and the diet of the mother, but this may be due to statistical chance, and has yet to be confirmed.[62]
Legality
Sex selection is illegal in most of the world. There is fertility tourism from the United Kingdom,[63] Australia[64] and Canada[65] to the United States for sex selection, because preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD, a potential expansion of IVF), which can be used for sex selection, is prohibited in the UK, Australia and Canada, except when it is used to screen for genetic diseases, while the laws in the US are more relaxed in this subject.[citation needed]
Sex selection is illegal in
Sex selection is illegal in India. Prenatal determination of sex through ultrasound is also illegal in India.[65] In 1994, the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act banned prenatal sex determination, and was strengthened by an amendment in 2003.[67] These laws were instituted to combat the prevalent practice of sex-selective abortion. Every genetic counselling centre, genetic laboratory or genetic clinic engaged in counselling or conducting pre-natal diagnostics techniques, like In vitro fertilisation (IVF) with the potential of sex selection (Preimplantation genetic diagnosis) before and after conception comes under purview of the PCPNDT Act and are banned.[68][69][70] However, these laws have generally failed to be effective in rural areas and, despite education efforts, sex-selective abortion continues to be practiced in certain small parts of India.[citation needed]
See also
References
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External links
- What is MicroSort Sex Selection (archived from the original on 2012-03-03)
- A collection of essays on sex selection in various Asian countries by Attané and Guilmoto
- Five case studies and a video on sex selection in Asia by UNFPA
- The 2012 United Nations study of factors and consequences of prenatal sex selection in the world
- A state of art review on birth masculinization by C. Z. Guilmoto
Ethical debates
- Gender selection for babies poses ethical dilemmas (archived from the original on 2007-11-11)
- On fetal blood testing
- Eftekhaari, Tasnim Eghbal; Nejatizadeh, Abdol Azim; Rajaei, Minoo; Soleimanian, Saeede; Fallahi, Soghra; Ghaffarzadegan, Rahman; Mahmoudi, Forough (19 May 2015). "Ethical considerations in sex selection". Journal of Education and Health Promotion. 4: 32. PMID 26097846.)
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