Shōjo manga
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Shōjo manga (少女漫画, lit. "girls' comics", also romanized as shojo or shoujo) is an editorial category of Japanese comics targeting an audience of adolescent females and young adult women. It is, along with shōnen manga (targeting adolescent boys), seinen manga (targeting young adult and adult men), and josei manga (targeting adult women), one of the primary editorial categories of manga. Shōjo manga is traditionally published in dedicated manga magazines, which often specialize in a particular readership age range or narrative genre.
Shōjo manga originated from Japanese girls' culture at the turn of the twentieth century, primarily shōjo shōsetsu (girls' prose novels) and jojōga (lyrical paintings). The earliest shōjo manga was published in general magazines aimed at teenagers in the early 1900s, and entered a period of creative development beginning in the 1950s as it began to formalize as a distinct category of manga. While the category was initially dominated by male manga artists, the emergence and eventual dominance of female artists beginning in the 1960s and 1970s led to a period of significant creative innovation, and the development of more graphically and thematically complex stories. Since the 1980s, the category has continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously branching out into different and overlapping subgenres.
Strictly speaking, shōjo manga does not refer to a specific style or a genre, but rather indicates a target demographic. While there are certain aesthetic, visual, and narrative conventions associated with shōjo manga, these conventions have changed and evolved over time, and none are strictly exclusive to shōjo manga. Nonetheless, several concepts and themes have come to be typically associated with shōjo manga, both visual (non-rigid panel layouts, highly detailed eyes) and narrative (a focus on human relations and emotions; characters that defy traditional roles and stereotypes surrounding gender and sexuality; depictions of supernatural and paranormal subjects).
Terminology
Shōjo
The Japanese word shōjo (少女) translates literally to "girl", but in common Japanese usage girls are generally referred to as onna no ko (女の子) and rarely as shōjo.[1] Rather, the term shōjo is used to designate a social category that emerged during the Meiji era (1868–1912) of girls and young women at the age between childhood and marriage. Generally this referred to school-aged adolescents, with whom an image of "innocence, purity and cuteness" was associated; this contrasted the moga ("modern girl", young unmarried working women), with whom a more self-determined and sexualized image was associated.[2] Shōjo continued to be associated with an image of youth and innocence after the end of the Meiji era, but took on a strong consumerist connotation beginning in the 1980s as it developed into a distinct marketing category for girls; the gyaru also replaced the moga as the archetypical independent woman during this period.[3][4][5]
Shōjo manga
Strictly speaking, shōjo manga does not refer to a specific style or a genre, but rather indicates a target demographic.[6] The Japanese manga market is segmented by target readership, with the major categories divided by gender (shōjo for girls, shōnen for boys) and by age (josei for women, seinen for men). Thus, shōjo manga is typically defined as manga marketed to an audience of adolescent girls and young adult women,[7] though shōjo manga is also read by men[8] and older women.[9]
Shōjo manga is traditionally published in dedicated manga magazines that are directed at a readership of shōjo, an audience that emerged in the early 20th century and which has grown and diversified over time.[10] While the style and tone of the stories published in these magazines varies across publications and decades, an invariant characteristic of shōjo manga has been a focus on human relations and the emotions that accompany them.[11] Some critics, such as Kyoto International Manga Museum curator Kayoko Kuramochi and academic Masuko Honda , emphasize certain graphic elements when attempting to define shōjo manga: the imaginative use of flowers, ribbons, fluttering dresses, girls with large sparkling eyes, and words that string across the page, which Honda describes using the onomatopoeia hirahira. This definition accounts for works that exist outside the boundaries of traditional shōjo magazine publishing but which nonetheless are perceived as shōjo, such as works published on the Internet.[12]
History
Before 1945: Context and origins
Origins of shōjo culture
As the Japanese publishing industry boomed during the
Shōjo shōsetsu nevertheless played an important role in establishing a shōjo culture, and laid the foundations for what would become the major recurrent themes of shōjo manga through their focus on stories of love and friendship.
Early shōjo manga
Early shōjo manga took the form short, humorous stories with ordinary settings (such as schools and neighborhoods)[20] and which often featured tomboy protagonists.[21][22] These works began to develop in the 1930s through the influence of artists such as Suihō Tagawa and Shosuke Kurakane; this period saw some female shōjo artists, such as Machiko Hasegawa and Toshiko Ueda, though they were significantly less common than male artists.[21][22]
Among the most influential artists of this era was
With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, censorship and paper rationing hindered the development of magazines, which either folded or were forced to merge to survive. The magazines that continued to published were reduced to a few pages of black and white text, with few or no illustrations.[26] 41 total magazines remained in publication in 1945, two of which were shōjo magazines: Shōjo Club and Shōjo no Tomo.[26][27]
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A four-panel manga from the November 1910 issue of Shōjo (artist unknown). Note the henohenomoheji in the final panel.
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The third chapter of Mikeko Romance (ミケ子ロマンス) by Jihei Ogawa, in the July 1920 issue of Shōjo Gahō
1945–1970: Post-war rise
1950s: Formalization as a category
With the end of the war, Japan entered into a period of large-scale artistic production in cinema, radio, and publishing. Fiction novels enjoyed a surge of popularity, while the number of published magazines grew from 41 in 1945 to 400 by 1952; the number of publishing companies grew from 300 to roughly 2000 during the same period. While not all of theses magazines and companies published children's literature, publications for children constituted a significant percentage of publishing output.
Shōjo manga artists who had been active prior to the war returned to the medium, including Shosuke Kurakane with Anmitsu Hime (1949–1955),[21] Toshiko Ueda with Fuichin-san (1957–1962),[31] and Katsuji Matsumoto resuming publication of Kurukuru Kurumi-chan.[32] During this period, Matsumoto developed his art into a style that began to resemble the kawaii aesthetic that would emerge several decades later.[32] New manga artists, such as Osamu Tezuka and other artists associated with Tokiwa-sō, created works that introduced intense drama and serious themes to children's manga using a new format that had become popular in shōnen manga: the "story manga", which depicted multi-chapter narratives with continuity rather than a succession of essentially independent vignettes.[21][32] Princess Knight (1953–1956) by Tezuka is credited with introducing this type of narrative, along with Tezuka's innovative and dynamic style, to shōjo magazines.[33][34]
At the same time, shōjo on the kashi-hon market developed its own distinct style through the influence of jojōga (lyrical painting). Jojōga artists Yukiko Tani and Macoto Takahashi drew cover illustrations for shōjo manga anthologies such as Niji and Hana before transitioning into drawing manga themselves.[35] Rather than following Matsumoto's trajectory of moving away from the visual conventions of lyrical painting, Tani and Takahashi imported them into their manga, with works defined by a strong sense of atmosphere and a focus on the emotions rather than the actions of their protagonists.[36][37] Takahashi's manga series Arashi o Koete (1958) was a major success upon its release, and marked the beginnings of this jojōga-influenced style eclipsing Tezuka's dynamic style as the dominant visual style of shōjo manga.[33][34] Not all kashi-hon shōjo conformed to this lyrical style: one of the most popular shōjo kashi-hon anthologies was Kaidan (怪談, lit. "Ghost Stories"), which launched in 1958 and ran for more than one hundred monthly issues. As its name implies, the anthology published supernatural stories focused on yūrei and yōkai. Its success with female readers resulted in other generalist shōjo anthologies beginning to publish horror manga, laying the groundwork for what would become a significant subgenre of shōjo manga.[38]
As manga became generally more popular over the course of the decade, the proportion of manga published by shōjo magazines began to increase. For example, while manga represented only 20 percent of the editorial content of Shōjo Club in the mid-1950s, by the end of the decade it composed more than half.[39] Many shōjo magazines had in effect became manga magazines, and several companies launched magazines dedicated exclusively to shōjo manga: first Kodansha in 1954 with Nakayoshi, followed by Shueisha in 1955 with Ribon.[40] From this combination of light-hearted stories inherited from the pre-war era, dramatic narratives introduced by the Tokiwa-sō, and cerebral works developed on the kashi-hon market, shōjo manga of this period was divided by publishers into three major categories: kanashii manga (かなしい漫画, lit. "sad manga"), yukai na manga (ゆかいな漫画, lit. "happy manga"), and kowai manga (こわい漫画, lit. "scary manga").[41][42]
1960s: Emergence of female artists
In the 1950s, shōjo manga was a genre that was created primarily by male authors, notably
By the 1960s, the ubiquity of television in Japanese households and the rise of serialized television programs emerged as a significant competitor to magazines. Many monthly magazines folded and were replaced by weekly magazines, such as Shōjo Friend and Margaret.[47] To satisfy the need for weekly editorial content, magazines introduced contests in which readers could submit their manga for publication; female artists dominated these contests, and many amateur artists who emerged from these contests went on to have professional manga careers.[48] The first artist to emerge from this system was Machiko Satonaka, who at the age of 16 had debut manga Pia no Shōzō ("Portrait of Pia", 1964) published in Shōjo Friend.[49]
The emergence of female artists led to the development of roma-kome (romantic comedy) manga, historically an unpopular genre among male shōjo artists. Hideko Mizuno was the first to introduce romantic comedy elements to shōjo manga through her manga adaptions of American romantic comedy films: Sabrina in 1963 as Sutekina Cora, and The Quiet Man in 1966 as Akage no Scarlet. Other artists, such as Masako Watanabe, Chieko Hosokawa, and Michiko Hosono similarly created manga based on American romantic comedy films, or which were broadly inspired by western actresses and models and featured western settings.[50] Contemporaneously, artists such as Yoshiko Nishitani became popular for rabu-kome (literally "love comedy") manga, focused on protagonists who were ordinary Japanese teenaged girls, with a narrative focus on themes of friendship, family, school, and love.[51][52]
While early romance shōjo manga was almost invariably simple and conventional love stories, over time and through the works of manga artists such as
By the end of the decade, most shōjo magazines now specialized in manga, and no longer published their previous prose literature and articles.[57] As the kashi-hon declined, so too did their manga anthologies; most folded, with their artists and writers typically migrating to manga magazines.[28] Most shōjo manga artists were women,[53] and the category had developed a unique visual identity that distinguished it from shōnen manga.[57]
1970s: "Golden age"
By the early 1970s, most shōjo manga artists were women, though editorial positions at shōjo manga magazines remained male-dominated.[58] Over the course of the decade, shōjo manga became more graphically and thematically complex, as it came to reflect the prevailing attitudes of the sexual revolution and women's liberation movement.[59] This movement towards narratively complex stories is associated with the emergence of a new generation of shōjo artists collectively referred to as the Year 24 Group, which included Moto Hagio, Keiko Takemiya, Yumiko Ōshima, and numerous others.[53][29] Works of the Year 24 Group focused on the internal psychology of their characters, and introduced new genres to shōjo manga such as adventure fiction, science fiction, fantasy, and historical drama.[53][60] The art style of the Group, influenced by Machiko Satonaka and Yukari Ichijō, came to pioneer new visual standards for shōjo manga: finer and lighter lines, beautiful faces that bordered on exaggeration, and panels that overlapped or were entirely borderless.[61]
Numerous artists contributed to innovation in shōjo manga during the 1970s. Takemiya and Hagio originated a new genre,
By the end of the 1970s, the three largest publishing houses in Japan (Kodansha, Shogakukan, and Shueisha) as well as Hakusensha established themselves as the largest publishers of shōjo manga, and maintained this dominant position in the decades that followed.[69] The innovation of shōjo manga throughout the decade attracted the attention of manga critics, who had previously ignored shōjo manga or regarded it as unserious, but who now declared that shōjo manga had entered its "golden age".[70][71] This critical attention attracted a male audience to shōjo manga who, although a minority of overall shōjo readers, remained as an audience for the category.[72][73]
1980s and 1990s: Subgenre development
Since the 1970s, shōjo manga has continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously branching out into different but overlapping subgenres.[74] This development began with a shift in characters and settings: while foreign characters and settings were common in the immediate post-war period, stories began to be set in Japan more frequently as the country began to re-assert an independent national identity.[64] Meiji University professor Yukari Fujimoto writes that beginning in the 1990s, shōjo manga became concerned with self-fulfillment. She intimates that the Gulf War influenced the development of female characters "who fight to protect the destiny of a community", such as Red River (1995–2002), Basara (1990–1998), Magic Knight Rayearth (1993–1996), and Sailor Moon (1991–1997). Fujimoto opines that the shōjo manga of the 1990s depicted emotional bonds between women as stronger than the bonds between a man and a woman.[75]
"Ladies comics" and shōjo for adults
In 1980, Kodansha published Be Love as the first manga magazine aimed at an audience of adult women. It was quickly followed by a wave of similar magazines, including Feel Young at Kodansha, Judy at Shogakukan, and You, Young You and Office You at Shueisha. This category of manga, referred to as "ladies' comics" or josei manga, shares many common traits with shōjo manga, with the primary distinguishing exception of a focus on adult protagonists rather than teenaged or younger protagonists.[76] Sexuality is also depicted more openly, though these depictions in turn came to influence shōjo manga, which itself began to depict sexuality more openly in the 1990s.[77] Several manga magazines blur distinctions between shōjo and josei, and publish works that aesthetically resemble shōjo manga but which deal with the adult themes of josei manga; examples include Kiss at Kodansha, Chorus and Cookie at Shueisha, and Betsucomi at Shogakukan.[78]
Horror and erotica
Niche shōjo publications that eschewed typical shōjo manga conventions emerged in the 1980s, particularly in the horror and erotica genres. This occurred in the context of the decline of kashi-hon publishing, where publishers survived market shifts away from book rental by offering collected volumes of manga that had not been previously serialized in magazines. Hibari Shōbo and Rippū Shōbo were among the publishing companies that began to publish shōjo horror manga in this format, typically as volumes that contained a mix of kashi-hon reissues and original creations.[79] Horror shōjo manga published by kashi-hon publishers was typically more gory and grotesque than the horror manga of mainstream shōjo magazines, in some case prompting accusations of obscenity and lawsuits by citizens' associations.[80] These publishing houses folded by the end of the 1980s as they became replaced with mainstream shōjo manga magazines dedicated to the horror genre, beginning with Monthly Halloween in 1986.[81]
In the 1990s, a genre of softcore pornographic shōjo manga emerged under the genre name teens' love. The genre shares many common traits with pornographic josei manga, with the distinguishing exception of the age of the protagonists, who are typically in their late teens and early twenties.[82] Teens' love magazines proliferated at smaller publishers, such as Ohzora Publishing, which published a wide range of both josei and teens' love manga.[82] The genre gradually migrated from small publishers to larger ones, such as Dessert and Shogakukan's mainstream shōjo magazines.[82]
By the 2000s, this niche shōjo manga, particularly the teens' love genre, had largely abandoned printed formats in favor of the Internet, in response to the rise of mobile phones in Japan.[83]
2000s–present: Restructuring and influence of anime
Cross-media shōjo manga
In the 2000s, publishers who produced manga aimed at a female audience faced a changing market: josei manga had declined in popularity, girls increasingly preferred television dramas over printed of entertainment, and the manga market generally had slowed. Many major publishers restructured their shōjo manga magazine operations in response, folding certain magazines and launching new publications.[84] The majority of the newly launched magazines during this period were commercial failures.[85]
In 2008, the publishing house Fusosha, which had previously not published manga, entered the manga market with the shōjo manga magazine Malika. The magazine was unconventional compared to other shōjo manga magazines of the era: in addition to publishing manga by renowned female authors, it featured contributions from celebrities in media, illustration, and design; the magazine also operated a website that published music and additional stories. The magazine was a commercial failure and folded after six issues, but came to be emblematic of a new trend in shōjo manga: cross-media marketing, where works are published across multiple mediums simultaneously.[86]
Early shōjo manga successes in this cross-media approach include
Moe in shōjo manga
The shōjo magazines
Moe was additionally expressed in shōjo manga through the emergence of so-called "boys shōjo manga", beginning with the magazines Comic High! in 2004 and Comic Yell! in 2007. Magazines in this category publish manga aimed at a male readership, but which use a visual style that draws significantly from the aesthetics of moe and shōjo manga.[90]
In the English-speaking world
English-language translations of shōjo manga were first published in North America in the late 1990s. As the
Style
Context and general elements
The visual style of shōjo manga was largely similar to that of shōnen manga until the late 1950s, a function of the fact that both shōjo and shōnen manga were created by the same, mostly male, artists.[92] During the pre-war period, these artists were especially influenced by the modernist style of George McManus,[24] while in the post-war period the dynamic style of Osamu Tezuka became the primary reference point for manga. While shōjo manga inherited some of these influences, the unique style that emerged at the end of the 1950s which came to distinguish shōjo manga from shōnen manga was primarily derived from pre-war shōjo shōsetsu.[93]
Shōjo shōsetsu is characterized by a "flowery and emotional" prose style focused on the
This narrative and visual style began to influence shōjo manga towards the end of the 1950s; Macoto Takahashi, a lyrical painter and manga artist, is regarded as the first artist to use this style in manga.[97][98][99][100] The style was quickly adopted by his contemporaries and later by shōjo artists who emerged in the 1960s, while in the 1970s artists associated with the Year 24 Group developed the style significantly.[92] According to manga artist, academic, and Year 24 Group member Keiko Takemiya, shōjo manga was able to develop this distinct style because the category was seen as marginal by editors, who consequently allowed artists to draw stories in whatever manner they wished so long as reader response remained positive.[101] Stylistic elements that were developed by the Year 24 Group became established as visual hallmarks of shōjo manga; many of these elements later spread to shōnen manga, such as the use of non-rigid panel layouts and highly detailed eyes that express the emotions of characters.[69]
Layout
Beginning in the 1970s,
Large eyes
A defining stylistic element of shōjo manga is its depiction of characters with very large, detailed eyes that have star-shaped highlights,[105][106] sometimes referred to as dekame (デカ目).[107] This technique did not originate in shōjo manga; large eyes have been drawn in manga since the early 20th century, notably by Osamu Tezuka, who drew inspiration from the theatrical makeup of actresses in the Takarazuka Revue when drawing eyes.[48] A large central star that replaces the pupil dot began to appear at key moments in shōjo manga by Tezuka and Shotaro Ishinomori in the mid-1950s,[108] though these details generally trended towards a realist style rather than the emotive style of later shōjo manga.[109]
Contemporaneously, the art of Jun'ichi Nakahara was significantly influencing kashi-hon manga artists, especially Macoto Takahashi.[109] Takahashi incorporated Nakahara's style of drawing eyes into his own manga – large, doll-like eyes with highlights and long lashes – while gradually introducing his own stylistic elements, such as the use of dots, stars, and multiple colors to represent the iris.[109] At the end of the 1950s, Takahashi's style was adopted by Miyako Maki – one of the most popular manga artists at the time – which led to its widespread adoption by mainstream shōjo manga magazines.[106]
From this point on, experimental eye design flourished in shōjo manga, with features such as elongated eyelashes, the use of concentric circles of different shades, and the deformation of the iris to create a glittering effect.[22] This focus on hyper-detailed eyes led manga artists to frame panels on close-ups of faces, to draw attention to the emotions being expressed by the eyes of the characters.[110] Eyes also came to serve as a marker of gender, with female characters typically having larger eyes than male characters.[101]
Themes
Interpersonal relationships
Among the most common concepts in shōjo manga is that of ningen kankei (人間関係, "human relationships"),
Manga scholar Yukari Fujimoto considers that the content of shōjo manga has evolved in tandem with the evolution of Japanese society, especially in terms of the place of women, the role of the family, and romantic relationships. She notes how family dramas with a focus on mother-daughter relationships were popular in the 1960s, while stories about romantic relationships became more popular in the 1970s, and stories about father figures became popular in the 1990s.[112] As shōjo manga began to focus on adolescents over children beginning in the 1970s, romantic relationships generally become more important than family relationships;[113] these romantic relationships are most often heterosexual, though they are occasionally homosexual.[112]
Gender and sexuality
Characters that defy traditional roles and stereotypes surrounding gender and sexuality have been a central motif of shōjo manga since its origins.
By the end of the 1960s, sexuality – both heterosexual and homosexual – began to be freely depicted in shōjo manga. This shift was brought about in part by literalist interpretations of manga censorship codes: for example, the first sex scenes in shōjo manga were including by covering characters having sex with bed sheets to circumvent codes that specifically only forbade depictions of genitals and pubic hair.[56] The evolution of these representations of gender in sexuality occurred in tandem with the feminization of shōjo manga's authorship and readership, as the category shifted from being created primarily by men for an audience of young girls, to being created by women for an audience of teenaged and young adult women; since the 1970s, shōjo manga has been written almost exclusively by women.[46]
Homosexuality
Though they compose a minority of shōjo stories overall, male-male romance manga – referred to as
Female-female romance manga, also known as
Paranormality
Shōjo manga often features
Mother-daughter conflict, as well as the fear or rejection of motherhood, appear as major motif in paranormal shōjo manga; for example, stories where mothers take on the appearance of demons or ghosts, daughters of demons who are themselves transformed into demons, impious pregnancies resulting from incestuous rape, and mothers who commit
Fashion
The relationship between shōjo culture and fashion dates to pre-war shōjo magazines, where artists such as Jun'ichi Nakahara illustrated fashion catalogs that included written instructions on how readers could make the depicted garments themselves. As manga grew in popularity in the post-war period, shōjo magazines continued their focus on fashion by publishing works featuring characters in elaborate outfits, or through promotional campaigns that offered clothes worn by manga characters as prizes.[135] Notable manga artists associated with this trend include Macoto Takahashi, Masako Watanabe, and Miyako Maki,[135] the lattermost of whom had their designs serve as the foundation for the popular Licca-chan doll in 1967.[68]
By the 1970s, consumer trends shifted from making clothes to
Generally, the clothing worn by characters in shōjo manga reflect the fashion trends of the era in which the series was produced.[137] Nevertheless, some common traits recur across eras: clothing adorned with ribbons or frills, and outfits that are especially feminine and child-like. Cute and ostentatious outfits are generally more common than outfits which are sexualized or modest.[138] Major inspirations include Victorian fashion for girls – as embodied by Alice from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, who is often invoked by Japanese manga, magazines and brands – and ballet costumes, especially tutus.[139]
Culture
Marketing and reader feedback
Manga in Japan is serialized in
In the case of both imōto and magazines aimed at older readers, referred to as onēsan (お姉さん, "big sister"), readers are invited to submit their opinions on current manga serials through letters and polls.[143] Often, a random survey respondent will receive a prize. Publishers use insights collected from these polls to change plotlines, highlight a secondary character, or end a series that is unpopular. These polls are also used when determining which manga to adapt into derivative works, such as anime and video games.[143]
In addition to survey responses, letters from readers are used as a means to gauge audience opinion and develop a sense of community. These letters are sent to publishers, but addressed directly at the authors themselves.[144] The content of these letters ranges from questions for the author, anecdotes from their daily lives, and drawings; some letters are published in the magazines themselves.[145] Meetings between readers and authors also occur regularly. These may be organized by the publisher, who select a group of readers to bring to their offices on a prize trip, or as a field trip organized by schools. In both cases, these visits strengthen the bond between reader and publisher, while also providing the publisher with insights into their readership.[144]
Talent development
Manga publishers often discover new authors through their readership, who are actively encouraged to submit stories and receive feedback from the magazine's editors.[39] This system of talent discovery and development is not unique to shōjo manga, though the practice originates in pre-war girls' magazines, where female readers were invited to submit novels and short stories.[146] Imōto magazines develop this system from a young age with the aim of having adult artists one day publish manga in the magazines they read when they were children, while onēsan magazines typically have readers and artists who are of a similar age.[71] By developing a system the authors of manga in a magazine were formerly readers, the distance between the two is reduced and a sense of community is fostered.[147]
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- ^ a b c Shamoon 2012, p. 87.
- ^ Brient 2010, p. 29.
- ^ a b Prough 2011, p. 73.
- ^ a b Fujimoto 1991, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Shamoon 2012, p. 109.
- ^ Shamoon 2012, pp. 6–8.
- ^ Iwashita, Housei (2022). "The Origins of Shōjo Manga". Google Arts & Culture. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
- ^ Ogi et al. 2019, p. 221.
- ^ Prough 2011, pp. 45–46.
- ^ McLelland 2010, pp. 82.
- ^ Schodt 1983, pp. 100–101.
- ISBN 4-309-90222-7.
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- ^ McLelland 2006.
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- ^ Friedman 2014, pp. 143–147.
- ^ Maser 2013, p. 46.
- ^ Fujimoto 2014, p. 25.
- ^ Fujimoto 2014, p. 34.
- ^ Dollase 2010, p. 60.
- ^ Dollase 2010, p. 59.
- ^ Dollase 2010, pp. 62–66.
- ^ Dollase 2010, pp. 67–70.
- ^ Fasulo 2021, p. 76.
- ^ Fasulo 2021, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Fasulo 2021, pp. 78–81.
- ^ a b c d e Kuramochi, Kayoko (2022). "The Intimate Relationship between "Shōjo" Manga and Fashion". Google Arts & Culture. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
- ^ a b Fraser & Monden 2017, p. 553.
- ^ Berndt, Nagaike & Ogi 2019, pp. 209–210.
- ^ Berndt, Nagaike & Ogi 2019, p. 211.
- ^ Berndt, Nagaike & Ogi 2019, p. 216.
- ^ Prough 2011, p. 60.
- ^ Prough 2011, p. 66.
- ^ Prough 2011, pp. 66–67.
- ^ a b Prough 2011, p. 61.
- ^ a b Prough 2011, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Prough 2011, pp. 76–79.
- ^ Prough 2011, p. 82.
- ^ Prough 2011, p. 87.
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