Shale oil extraction
Main facilities | Fushun Shale Oil Plant, Narva Oil Plant, Petrosix, Stuart Shale Oil Plant |
---|
Shale oil extraction is an
Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground (ex situ processing) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities. Other modern technologies perform the processing underground (on-site or in situ processing) by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells.[2]
The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century. In 1684, Great Britain granted the first formal extraction process patent. Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century. The industry shrank in the mid-20th century following the discovery of large
As of 2010, major long-standing extraction industries are operating in
History
In the 10th century, the Assyrian physician
China (Manchuria), Estonia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century. However, crude oil discoveries in Texas during the 1920s and in the Middle East in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt.[8][9][10][11] In 1944, the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program. These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in the 1980s.[9][12][13] The last oil shale retort in the US, operated by Unocal Corporation, closed in 1991.[12][13] The US program was restarted in 2003, followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005.[14]
As of 2010[update], shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia, Brazil, and China.[15][16][17] In 2008, their industries produced about 930,000 tonnes (17,700 barrels per day) of shale oil.[8] Australia, the US, and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation; Morocco and Jordan have announced their intent to do the same.[8][12][17][18][19][20] Only four processes are in commercial use: Kiviter, Galoter, Fushun, and Petrosix.[16]
Processing principles
Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its
The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as retorting or
Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing the
For ex situ processing, oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for better extraction. The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time-scale of the process. In ex situ retorting processes, it begins at 300 °C (570 °F) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. The amount of oil produced is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F). The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally increases along with retorting temperatures.[21] For a modern in situ process, which might take several months of heating, decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 °C (480 °F). Temperatures below 600 °C (1,110 °F) are preferable, as this prevents the decomposition of limestone and dolomite in the rock and thereby limits carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption.[25]
Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using
Classification of extraction technologies
Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract shale oil from oil shale.
By process principles: Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution.[22]
By location: A frequently used distinction considers whether processing is done above or below ground, and classifies the technologies broadly as ex situ (displaced) or in situ (in place). In ex situ processing, also known as above-ground
By heating method: The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect. While methods that allow combustion products to contact the oil shale within the retort are classified as direct, methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as indirect[16]
By heat carrier: Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale, processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier, solid heat carrier, wall conduction, reactive fluid, and volumetric heating methods.[11][23][2][30] Heat carrier methods can be sub-classified as direct or indirect.
The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method, heat carrier and location (in situ or ex situ).
Classification of processing technologies by heating method and location (according to Alan Burnham)[11][23][2][30] | ||
---|---|---|
Heating Method | Above ground (ex situ) | Underground (in situ) |
Internal combustion | Occidental Petroleum MIS, LLNL RISE, Geokinetics Horizontal, Rio Blanco | |
Hot recycled solids (inert or burned shale) |
– | |
Conduction through a wall (various fuels) |
Shell ICP (primary method), American Shale Oil CCR, IEP Geothermic Fuel Cell | |
Externally generated hot gas | PetroSIX, Union B, Paraho Indirect, Superior Indirect, Syntec (Smith process) | Omnishale, MWE IGE
|
Reactive fluids | IGT Hytort (high-pressure H2), donor solvent processes Rendall Process Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor | Shell ICP (some embodiments) |
Volumetric heating | – | Radio wave, microwave, and electric current processes |
By raw oil shale particle size: The various ex situ processing technologies may be differentiated by the size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts. As a rule, gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters (0.4 to 3.9 in), while solid heat carrier and wall conduction technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) in diameter.[16]
By retort orientation: "Ex-situ" technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal. Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where a bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity. Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other. As a general rule, vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier, while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier.
By complexity of technology: In situ technologies are usually classified either as true in situ processes or modified in situ processes. True in situ processes do not involve mining or crushing the oil shale. Modified in situ processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit. The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit, thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced.[13]
Ex situ technologies
Internal combustion
Internal combustion technologies burn materials (typically char and oil shale gas) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis.
Internal combustion technologies such as the Paraho Direct are thermally efficient, since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of the retort. These technologies can achieve 80–90% of Fischer assay yield.[30] Two well-established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies: Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s, and a number of Chinese companies operate Fushun process facilities.
Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas is diluted by combustion gases[30] and particles smaller than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) can not be processed. Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles to fuse or disintegrate.
Hot recycled solids
Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles—typically oil shale ash. These technologies usually employ rotating kiln or fluidized bed retorts, fed by fine oil shale particles generally having a diameter of less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in); some technologies use particles even smaller than 2.5 millimeters (0.10 in). The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 °C (1,470 °F) and then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 °C (932 °F). Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect the oil. Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids.
In the
Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace, the oil shale gas from these technologies is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas.[11][2] Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process, thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used. One disadvantage is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash.
Conduction through a wall
These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall. The shale feed usually consists of fine particles. Their advantage lies in the fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust.
Externally generated hot gas
In general, externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns. Significantly, though, the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel, and therefore the retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust.[11][2] The Petrosix and Paraho Indirect employ this technology.[13][38] In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed, these technologies do not utilize the potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels. However, due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale, the oil shale does not exceed 500 °C (932 °F) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO2 generation can be avoided for some oil shales. Also, these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies.
Reactive fluids
Kerogen is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most solvents.[39] Despite this constraint, extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested, including those in a supercritical state.[39] Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content. In these technologies, hydrogen gas (H2) or hydrogen donors (chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions) react with coke precursors (chemical structures in the oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so).[40] Reactive fluid technologies include the IGT Hytort (high-pressure H2) process, donor solvent processes, and the Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor.[12][2] In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high-pressure hydrogen environment.[41] The Chattanooga process uses a fluidized bed reactor and an associated hydrogen-fired heater for oil shale thermal cracking and hydrogenation.[12] Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes. Drawbacks are the additional cost and complexity of hydrogen production and high-pressure retort vessels.
Plasma gasification
Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil-shale gasification by using
In situ technologies
John Fell experimented with in situ extraction, at Newnes, In Australia, during 1921, with some success,[46][47] but his ambitions were well ahead of technologies available at the time.
During World War II a modified in situ extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany.[11] One of the earliest successful in situ processes was underground gasification by electrical energy (Ljungström method)—a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at Kvarntorp in Sweden.[11][48] Prior to the 1980s, many variations of the in situ process were explored in the United States. The first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by Occidental Petroleum in 1972 at Logan Wash, Colorado.[13] Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems.
Wall conduction
Wall conduction in situ technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation. The Shell in situ conversion process (Shell ICP) uses electrical heating elements for heating the oil shale layer to between 340 and 370 °C (650 and 700 °F) over a period of approximately four years.[49] The processing area is isolated from surrounding groundwater by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super-chilled fluid.[23][29] Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption, extensive water use, and the risk of groundwater pollution.[50] The process was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the Piceance Basin. 270 cubic meters (1,700 bbl) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 9-by-12-meter (30 by 40 ft) testing area.[29][49][51]
In the CCR Process proposed by American Shale Oil, superheated steam or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted. The system combines horizontal wells, through which steam is passed, and vertical wells, which provide both vertical heat transfer through refluxing of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons. Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or propane in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage.[12][52]
The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process (IEP GFC) proposed by Independent Energy Partners extracts shale oil by exploiting a high-temperature stack of fuel cells. The cells, placed in the oil shale formation, are fueled by natural gas during a warm-up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own waste heat.[12][48]
Externally generated hot gas
Externally generated hot gas in situ technologies use hot gases heated above-ground and then injected into the oil shale formation. The Chevron CRUSH process, which was researched by Chevron Corporation in partnership with Los Alamos National Laboratory, injects heated carbon dioxide into the formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated.[53] General Synfuels International has proposed the Omnishale process involving injection of super-heated air into the oil shale formation.[12][37] Mountain West Energy's In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high-temperature gas.[12][54]
ExxonMobil Electrofrac
Volumetric heating
The
Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating, although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into the oil shale formation.[61] The microwave heating process was tested by Global Resource Corporation.[62] Electro-Petroleum proposes electrically enhanced oil recovery by the passage of direct current between cathodes in producing wells and anodes located either at the surface or at depth in other wells. The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive Joule heating.[12]
Shale oil
The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on the composition of the parent oil shale and the extraction technology used.
Shale oil contains
Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to a conventional oil refinery.[1]
Before World War II, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood preservative. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals.[1]
Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of
Economics
The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable. According to the
To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes, in which other materials such as
Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve
A possible measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy in the extracted oil to the energy used in its mining and processing (Energy Returned on Energy Invested, or
To increase the EROEI, several combined technologies were proposed. These include the usage of process waste heat, e.g. gasification or combustion of the residual carbon (char), and the usage of waste heat from other industrial processes, such as coal gasification and nuclear power generation.[12][86][87]
The water requirements of extraction processes are an additional economic consideration in regions where water is a scarce resource.
Environmental considerations
Mining oil shale involves a number of environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining.
Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels.[92] Experimental in situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including groundwater pollution.[93] Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected examples include quinoline derivatives, pyridine, and various alkyl homologues of pyridine (picoline, lutidine).[94]
Water concerns are sensitive issues in arid regions, such as the western US and Israel's Negev Desert, where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction despite a water shortage.[95] Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil.[29][96][97][98] A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the US Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale.[96] In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.[99] Environmental activists, including members of Greenpeace, have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry. In one result, Queensland Energy Resources put the proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project in Australia on hold in 2004.[57][100][101]
See also
References
- ^ a b c
Purga, Jaanus (2007). Shale Products – Production, Quality and Market Challenges. 27th Oil Shale Symposium. 27th Oil Shale Symposium 2007 – Proceedings. ISBN 978-1-63439-147-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Burnham, Alan K.; McConaghy, James R. (2006-10-16). Comparison of the acceptability of various oil shale processes (PDF). 26th Oil shale symposium. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Golden, Colorado. pp. 2, 17. UCRL-CONF-226717. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
- ^ a b c d Louw, S.J.; Addison, J. (1985). Seaton, A. (ed.). "Studies of the Scottish oil shale industry. Vol.1 History of the industry, working conditions, and mineralogy of Scottish and Green River formation shales. Final report on US Department of Energy" (PDF). Historical Research Report. Institute of Occupational Medicine: 35, 38, 56–57. DE-ACO2 – 82ER60036. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
- ^
Forbes, R.J. (1970). A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
- ^ Moody, Richard (2007-04-20). "Oil & Gas Shales, Definitions & Distribution In Time & Space". The History of On-Shore Hydrocarbon Use in the UK (PDF). Geological Society of London. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
- ^
Cane, R.F. (1976). "The origin and formation of oil shale". In Teh Fu Yen; Chilingar, George V. (eds.). Oil Shale. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-444-41408-3. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
- ^ Runnels, Russell T.; Kulstad, Robert O.; McDuffee, Clinton; Schleicher, John A. (1952). "Oil Shale in Kansas". Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin (96, part 3). Retrieved 2009-05-30.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-946121-02-1. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2015-01-03.
- ^ a b
Prien, Charles H. (1976). "Survey of oil-shale research in last three decades". In Teh Fu Yen; Chilingar, George V. (eds.). Oil Shale. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 237–243. ISBN 978-0-444-41408-3. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
- ^ a b Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel (May 2007). A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy of the European Parliament (PDF) (Report). European Academies Science Advisory Council. pp. 12–13, 18–19, 23–24, 28. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l
An Assessment of Oil Shale Technologies (PDF). Diane Publishing. June 1980. pp. 108–110, 133, 138–139, 148–150. ISBN 978-1-4289-2463-5. NTIS order #PB80-210115. Retrieved 2007-11-03.)
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Secure Fuels from Domestic Resources: The Continuing Evolution of America's Oil Shale and Tar Sands Industries (PDF). NTEK, Inc. (Report) (5 ed.). United States Department of Energy, Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves. 2007. pp. 3, 8, 16–17, 22–29, 36–37, 40–43, 54–57. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Johnson, Harry R.; Crawford, Peter M.; Bunger, James W. (2004). Strategic significance of America's oil shale resource. Volume II: Oil shale resources, technology and economics (PDF) (Report). Office of Deputy Assistant Secretary for Petroleum Reserves; Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves; United States Department of Energy. pp. 13–16, A2, B3–B5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-21. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ^ "Nominations for Oil Shale Research Leases Demonstrate Significant Interest in Advancing Energy Technology" (Press release). Bureau of Land Management. 2005-09-20. Archived from the original on 2008-09-16. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
- ^
Brendow, K. (2009). "Oil shale – a local asset under global constraint" (PDF). ISSN 0208-189X. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
- ^ a b c d e Qian Jialin; Wang Jianqiu (2006-11-07). World oil shale retorting technologies (PDF). International Oil Shale Conference. China University of Petroleum. Amman, Jordan: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-27. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
- ^ a b
Aarna, Indrek (2009). "Editor's page. The 3rd International Oil Shale Symposium in Tallinn" (PDF). ISSN 0208-189X. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
- ^ Luck, Taylor (2008-08-07). "Jordan set to tap oil shale potential". The Jordan Times. Jordan Press Foundation. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
- ^ "San Leon Energy Awarded Moroccan Oil Shale Exploration Project". OilVoice. 2009-06-01. Archived from the original on 2011-09-29. Retrieved 2009-06-03.
- ^ "Oil Shale" (PDF). Colorado School of Mines. 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ^ a b c d e
Koel, Mihkel (1999). "Estonian oil shale". ISSN 0208-189X. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
- ^ a b c Luik, Hans (2009-06-08). Alternative technologies for oil shale liquefaction and upgrading (PDF). International Oil Shale Symposium. Tallinn University of Technology. Tallinn, Estonia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-24. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
- ^ a b c d
Speight, James G. (2008). Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Process, and Performance. ISBN 978-0-07-149023-8. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- ^ Qian, Jialin; Wang, Jianqiu; Li, Shuyuan (2007-10-15). One Year's Progress in the Chinese Oil Shale Business (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado: China University of Petroleum. Retrieved 2011-05-06.
- ^ a b "Synthetic Fuels Summary. Report No. FE-2468-82" (PDF). The Engineering Societies Commission on Energy, Inc.: 80, 83–84, 90. March 1981. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
- ^
Gorlov, E.G. (October 2007). "Thermal Dissolution Of Solid Fossil Fuels". Solid Fuel Chemistry. 41 (5): 290–298. S2CID 73546863.
- ^
Koel, Mihkel; Ljovin, S.; Hollis, K.; Rubin, J. (2001). "Using neoteric solvents in oil shale studies" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 73 (1): 153–159. S2CID 35224850. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
- ^
Baldwin, R. M.; Bennett, D. P.; Briley, R. A. (1984). "Reactivity of oil shale towards solvent hydrogenation" (PDF). American Chemical Society. Division of Petroleum Chemistry. 29 (1): 148–153. ISSN 0569-3799. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ^ a b c d e
Bartis, James T.; LaTourrette, Tom; Dixon, Lloyd; Peterson, D.J.; Cecchine, Gary (2005). Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues. Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the United States Department of Energy (PDF). ISBN 978-0-8330-3848-7. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
- ^ a b c d
Smith, M.W.; Shadle, L.J.; Hill, D. (2007). Oil Shale Development from the Perspective of NETL's Unconventional Oil Resource Repository. 26th Oil Shale Symposium, Colorado Energy Research Institute, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, Oct. 16–18, 2006. OSTI 915351. DOE/NETL-IR-2007-022.
- ^ Fuels to drive our future. )
- ^ a b c "Appendix A: Oil Shale Development Background and Technology Overview" (PDF). Proposed Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Bureau of Land Management. September 2008. pp. 36, 54–55. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
- ^ Soone, Jüri; Riisalu, Hella; Kekisheva, Ljudmilla; Doilov, Svjatoslav (2006-11-07). Environmentally sustainable use of energy and chemical potential of oil shale (PDF). International Oil Shale Conference. Tallinn University of Technology. Amman, Jordan: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. pp. 2–3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
- ^ Coates, Ralph L.; Hatfield, Kent E.; Smoot, L. Douglas (2007-10-16). A New Improved Process for Processing Oil Shale Ore into Motor Ready Fuel Products (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Combustion Resources, Inc. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines. Retrieved 2009-04-12.
- ^ Coates, Ralph L.; Hatfield, Kent E.; Smoot, L. Douglas (2007-10-17). A method of reducing CO2 emissions from oil shale retorting (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Combustion Resources, Inc. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines. Retrieved 2009-04-12.
- ^ Biglarbigi, Khosrow; Mohan, Hitesh; Crawford, Peter; Carolus, Marshall (2008-12-04). Economics, Barriers, and Risks of Oil Shale Development in the United States (PDF). 28th United States Association for Energy Economics/International Association for Energy Economics North America Conference. INTEK Incorporated. New Orleans: The United States Association for Energy Economics. Retrieved 2009-09-27.
- ^ a b c Crawford, Peter M.; Biglarbigi, Khosrow; Killen, James R.; Dammer, Anton R.; Knaus, Emily (2008-09-22). Advances in World Oil-Shale Production Technologies. Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. INTEK Incorporated. Denver, Colorado: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
- ^ Laherrère, Jean H. (2005). "Review on oil shale data" (PDF). Hubbert Peak. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8493-4615-6.
- ^ Rex, R.; Janka, J. C.; Knowlton, T. (1984). Cold Flow Model Testing of the Hytort Process Retort Design. 17th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines Press. pp. 17–36.
- ^ Weil, S. A.; Feldkirchner, H. L.; Punwani, D. V.; Janka, J. C. (21 May 1979). IGT HYTORT Process for hydrogen retorting of Devonian oil shales. National conference on energy and the environment, Pittsburgh, PA, US. Chicago: Gas Technology Institute. CONF-790571-3.
- ^ a b Messerle, V.E.; Ustimenko, A.B.; Dragosavljevich, Z.N.; Rakin, Petar (September 2009). "Gasification of Oil Shale from Aleksinac Using Plasma Technology. Plasma-Allo-Autothermal Gasification and Plasma Steam Gasification Process Simulation Results" (PDF). 5th International Workshop and Exhibition on Plasma Assisted Combustion (IWEPAC) (Report). Applied Plasma Technologies. pp. 58–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- ^ a b Al-Mayareh, Malik; Al-Salaymeh, Ahmed; Jovicic, Vojislav; Delgado, Antonio (2011-10-18). Gasification of Jordanian oil shale using nitrogen non-thermal plasma (PDF). 31st Oil Shale Symposium. Combustion Resources, Inc. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- ^ Foret, Todd; Winterburg, Kip; MacClain, Cliff (2007-10-09). Oil shale processing, water treatment and CO2 sequestration with plasma (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Combustion Resources, Inc. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
- ^
Kök, M. V.; Guner, G.; Suat Bağci, A. (2008). "Application of EOR techniques for oil shale fields (in-situ combustion approach)" (PDF). hdl:11511/47124. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
- ^ "REVOLUTION IN SHALE TREATMENT". Lithgow Mercury. 1921-10-28. Retrieved 2022-04-18.
- ^ "TRAGEDY OF SHALE INDUSTRY". Labor Daily. 1937-02-06. p. 4. Retrieved 2022-04-26.
- ^ a b Savage, Marshall T. (2006-10-17). Geothermic fuel cells (PDF). 26th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines/. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
- ^ a b
Lee, Sunggyu; Speight, James G.; Loyalka, Sudarshan K. (2007). Handbook of Alternative Fuel Technologies. ISBN 978-0-8247-4069-6. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- ^
Birger, Jon (2007-11-01). "Oil shale may finally have its moment". Fortune. Archived from the original on 2007-11-18. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|agency=
ignored (help) - ^ Reiss, Spencer (2005-12-13). "Tapping the Rock Field". WIRED magazine. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- ^ Plan of Operation for Oil Shale Research, Development and Demonstration (R, D/D) Tract (PDF) (Report). E.G.L. Resources, Inc. 2006-02-15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-05-09. Retrieved 2008-05-01.
- ^ Oil Shale Research, Development & Demonstration Project. Plan of Operation (PDF) (Report). Chevron USA, Inc. 2006-02-15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-06. Retrieved 2008-05-01.
- ^ Doyle, Dave (March 2008). "Single well, single gas phase technique is key to unique method of extracting oil vapors from oil shale". World Oil Magazine. Gulf Publishing Company. Archived from the original on 2012-03-05. Retrieved 2009-09-27.
- ^
Plunkett, Jack W. (2008). Plunkett's Energy Industry Almanac 2009: The Only Comprehensive Guide to the Energy & Utilities Industry. Plunkett Research, Ltd. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-59392-128-6. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- ^ a b Symington, William A.; Olgaard, David L.; Otten, Glenn A.; Phillips, Tom C.; Thomas, Michele M.; Yeakel, Jesse D. (2008-04-20). ExxonMobil's Electrofrac Process for In Situ Oil Shale Conversion (PDF). AAAPG Annual Convention. San Antonio: American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Retrieved 2009-04-12.
- ^ a b c Burnham, Alan K. (2003-08-20). Slow Radio-Frequency Processing of Large Oil Shale Volumes to Produce Petroleum-like Shale Oil (PDF) (Report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. UCRL-ID-155045. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
- ^ Carlson, R. D.; Blase, E. F.; McLendon, T. R. (1981-04-22). "Development of the IIT Research Institute RF heating process for in situ oil shale/tar sand fuel extraction–an overview". Oil Shale Symposium Proceedings. 14th Oil Shale Symposium: 138–145. CONF-810456.
- ^ "Radio Frequency/Critical Fluid Oil Extraction Technology" (PDF). Raytheon. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-11. Retrieved 2008-08-20.
- ^ a b c d e "Schlumberger Acquires Raytheon Technology for Oil Extraction from Oil Shale and Oil Sands". Green Car Congress. 2008-01-23. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
- ^
Daniel, David Edwin; Lowe, Donald F.; Oubre, Carroll L.; Ward, Calvin Herbert (1999). Soil vapor extraction using radio frequency heating: resource manual and technology demonstration. ISBN 978-1-56670-464-9. Retrieved 2009-09-26.
- ^ "Global Resource Reports Progress on Oil Shale Conversion Process" (Press release). Global Resource Corp. 2007-03-09. Retrieved 2008-05-31 – via Rigzone.
- ^
McKetta, John J. (1994). Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol. 50. ISBN 978-0-8247-2601-0. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
- ^ a b c
Lee, Sunggyu (1991). Oil Shale Technology. CRC Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8493-4615-6. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ^
Speight, James (2008). Synthetic Fuels Handbook. ISBN 978-0-07-149023-8. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ^
Wauquier, Jean-Pierre; Trambouze, Pierre; Favennec, Jean-Pierre (1995). Petroleum Refining: Crude Oil. Petroleum Products. Process Flowsheets. Editions TECHNIP. p. 317. ISBN 978-2-7108-0685-1.
- ^
Market assessment for shale oil (Report). Energy Citations Database. 1979. OSTI 5749060.
- ^
Slawson, G. C.; Teh Fu Yen, eds. (1979). Compendium reports on oil shale technology. Vol. 1. ISBN 978-2-7108-0685-1.
- ^
Bo Yu; Ping Xu; Shanshan Zhu; Xiaofeng Cai; Ying Wang; Li Li; Fuli Li; Xiaoyong Liu; Cuiqing Ma (March 2006). "Selective Biodegradation of S and N Heterocycles by a Recombinant Rhodococcus erythropolis Strain Containing Carbazole Dioxygenase". PMID 16517679.
- ^ "Process for treating hot shale oil effluent from a retort – US Patent # 4181596". freepatentsonline.com. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ a b
Oja, Vahur (2006). "A brief overview of motor fuels from shale oil of kukersite" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal. 23 (2): 160–163. S2CID 204222114. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ^ a b c
Mölder, Leevi (2004). "Estonian Oil Shale Retorting Industry at a Crossroads" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal. 21 (2): 97–98. S2CID 252707682. Retrieved 2008-12-25.
- ^ Andrews, Anthony (2006-04-13). Oil Shale: History, Incentives and Policy (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. RL33359. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ^ Andrews, Anthony (2008-11-17). Developments in Oil Shale (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. RL34748. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
- ISBN 978-0-7637-2471-9.
Fractional distillation yields mainly high molecular weight hydrocarbons, which can then be cracked to yield desirable hydrocarbons in the gasoline range.
- ^ a b
"Fact Sheet: U.S. Oil Shale Economics" (PDF). Office of Petroleum Reserves. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-10-19. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^
Schmidt, S. J. (2003). "New directions for shale oil:path to a secure new oil supply well into this century: on the example of Australia" (PDF). S2CID 102487634. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
- ^ Tiikma, Laine; Johannes, Ille; Pryadka, Natalja (2002). "Co-pyrolysis of waste plastics with oil shale". Proceedings. Symposium on Oil Shale 2002, Tallinn, Estonia: 76.
- ^ Tiikma, Laine; Johannes, Ille; Luik, Hans (March 2006). "Fixation of chlorine evolved in pyrolysis of PVC waste by Estonian oil shales". Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 75 (2): 205–210. .
- ^
Veski, R.; Palu, V.; Kruusement, K. (2006). "Co-liquefaction of kukersite oil shale and pine wood in supercritical water" (PDF). S2CID 59478829. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
- ^
Aboulkas, A.; El Harfi, K.; El Bouadili, A.; Benchanaa, M.; Mokhlisse, A.; Outzourit, A. (2007). "Kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Tarfaya (Morocco) oil shale with high-density polyethylene" (PDF). S2CID 55932225. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
- ^ Ozdemir, M.; Akar, A.; Aydoğan, A.; Kalafatoglu, E.; Ekinci, E. (2006-11-07). Copyrolysis of Goynuk oil shale and thermoplastics (PDF). International Oil Shale Conference. Amman, Jordan: Jordanian Natural Resources Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-27. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
- ^ Siirde, Andres; Martins, Ants (2009-06-07). Oil shale fluidized bed retorting technology with CFB furnace for burning the by-products (PDF). International Oil Shale Symphosium. Tallinn, Estonia: Tallinn University of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-24. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
- ^
Cleveland, Cutler J.; Costanza, Robert; Hall, Charles A. S.; Kaufmann, Robert (1984-08-31). "Energy and the U.S. Economy: A Biophysical Perspective". S2CID 2875906.
- ^
ISBN 978-92-64-08624-1.
- ^ Parkinson, Gerald (2006). "Oil Shale: The U.S. Takes Another Look at a Huge Domestic Resource". Chemical Engineering Progress. 102 (7). Archived from the original on 2014-06-11. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ^
Clark, Judy (2008-08-11). "Nuclear heat advances oil shale refining in situ". PennWell Corporation. pp. 22–24. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ^ Mittal, Anu K. (10 May 2012). "Unconventional Oil and Gas Production. Opportunities and Challenges of Oil Shale Development" (PDF). Government Accountability Office. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
- ^ Western Oil Shale Has a High Mercury Content http://www.westernresearch.org/uploadedFiles/Energy_and_Environmental_Technology/Unconventional_Fuels/Oil_Shale/MercuryinOilShale.pdf Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Environmental Impacts from Mining" (PDF). The Abandoned Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup Handbook. United States Environmental Protection Agency. August 2000. pp. 3/1–3/11. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
- ^
S2CID 252708288. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
- ^ Driving It Home. Choosing the Right Path for Fueling North America's Transportation Future (PDF) (Report). Natural Resources Defense Council. June 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2008.
- ^ Bartis, Jim (26 October 2006). Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview (PDF). World Oil Conference. Association for the Study of Peak Oil & Gas – USA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
- ^ Sims, G. K. and E.J. O'Loughlin. 1989. Degradation of pyridines in the environment. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control. 19(4): 309–340.
- ^
Speckman, Stephen (22 March 2008). "Oil-shale 'rush' is sparking concern". Deseret Morning News. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
- ^ a b "Chapter 4. Effects of Oil Shale Technologies" (PDF). Proposed Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resource Management Plan Amendments to Address Land Use Allocations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Bureau of Land Management. September 2008. p. 4‑3. FES 08-32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
- ^ "Critics charge energy, water needs of oil shale could harm environment". U.S. Water News Online. July 2007. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 1 April 2008.
- ^
Al-Ayed, Omar (2008). "Jordan Oil Shale Project". Al-Balqa` Applied University. Archived from the originalon 3 June 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2008.
- ^ Fischer, Perry A. (August 2005). "Hopes for shale oil are revived". World Oil Magazine. Archived from the original on 9 November 2006. Retrieved 1 April 2008.
- ^ "Greenpeace happy with part closure of shale oil plant". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 22 July 2004. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
- ^ Anderson, Campbell (2 May 2002). Greenpeace vs the future of Australian oil shale (PDF). The 53rd Sydney Mining Club. Sydney. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
External links
- Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal (ISSN 0208-189X)
- Oil Shale and Tar Sands Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Information Center. Concerning potential leases of Federal oil sands lands in Utah and oil shale lands in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado.
- The United States National Oil Shale Association (NOSA)