Shandong Problem
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The Shandong Problem or Shandong Question[a] (simplified Chinese: 山东问题; traditional Chinese: 山東問題; pinyin: Shāndōng wèntí, Japanese: 山東問題, Santō mondai[1]) was a dispute over Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which dealt with the concession of the Shandong Peninsula. It was resolved in China's favor in 1922.
During the
The new government of China denounced the transfer of German holdings at the
The US, finding itself isolated by all Great Powers, agreed to the Japanese, British and French demands. The Chinese public became outraged by the eventual treaty, accusing the Chinese government of selling out, and became disappointed by Wilson's failed promises.[4]
China's refusal to sign the Treaty of Versailles necessitated a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921. The Shandong dispute was mediated by the United States in 1922 during the Washington Naval Conference. In a victory for China, the Japanese leasehold on Shandong was returned to China in the Nine-Power Treaty. Japan, however, maintained its economic dominance of the railway and the province as a whole.[5] When its dominance in the province was threatened by Chiang Kai-shek's Northern Expedition to unite China in 1927–1928, Japan launched a series of military interventions, culminating in the Jinan incident conflict with Chinese Nationalist soldiers. Jinan would remain under Japanese occupation until March 1929, when an agreement to settle the dispute over Jinan was reached.[6] Shandong remained in the sphere of influence of Japan, arguably, until the end of the Japanese occupation of China during the Second World War in 1945.[7]
See also
- Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941)
- Treaty of Versailles
- Paris Peace Conference
Notes
References
- ^ "山東問題(読み)さんとうもんだい". kotobank.jp.
- ISBN 978-0-19-870069-2.
- ^ A. Whitney Griswold, The Far Eastern Policy of the United States (1938). pp. 239–268
- ^ Chow Tse-Tsung: The May Fourth Movement. Intellectual Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University), 1960. pp. 86–93
- ^ Griswold, The Far Eastern Policy of the United States (1938), pp 326–328
- ISBN 978-4-16-358560-4.
- ^ "Occupation during and after the War (China) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
Further reading
- Burkman, Thomas W. Japan and the League of Nations: Empire and world order, 1914–1938 (U of Hawaii Press, 2007).
- Craft, Stephen G. "John Bassett Moore, Robert Lansing, and the Shandong Question," Pacific Historical Review (1997) 66#2 pp. 231-249 in JSTOR
- Elleman, Bruce A. Wilson and China: a revised history of the Shandong question (ME Sharpe, 2002)
- Fifield, Russell Hunt. Woodrow Wilson and the Far East: the diplomacy of the Shantung question (1952)
- Griswold, A. Whitney The Far Eastern Policy of the United States (1938) pp 239-68
- Kawamura, Noriko. "Wilsonian idealism and Japanese claims at the Paris Peace Conference," Pacific Historical Review (1997) 66#4 pp 503-526.
- MacMillan, Margaret. Paris 1919: Six months that changed the world (2001) pp 322-44.
- Pugach, Noel H. "American Friendship for China and the Shantung Question at the Washington Conference," Journal of American History (1977) 64#1 pp 67-86. in JSTOR