Shanghai International Settlement

Shanghai International Settlement 上海公共租界
International Settlement
1863–1941/1943
Flag of the Shanghai Municipality before World War I Seal of the Shanghai Municipality before World War I
Location of Shanghai International Settlement (in red) relative to the French Concession (faded yellow) and the Chinese zone (gray)
Demonym	Shanghailander
Area
• 1925	22.59 km2 (8.72 sq mi)
Population
• 1910	501,561
• 1925	1,137,298
Government
•  Latin ) "All Joined into One"
History
• Established	1863
• Disestablished	1941/1943
Preceded by Succeeded by British Concession (Shanghai) American Concession (Shanghai) Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China
Today part of	People's Republic of China Shanghai Municipality

Nanking Road

, Shanghai, within the International Settlement.

Shanghai International Settlement
Hanyu Pinyin	Shànghǎi Gōnggòng Zūjiè
Wade–Giles	Shang-hai Kung-kung Tsu-chieh
Wu
Shanghainese Romanization	Zånhae Konkun Tsyga

The Shanghai International Settlement (

agreed by both parties. These treaties were abrogated in 1943.

The British settlements were established following the victory of the British in the First Opium War (1839–42). Under the terms of the Treaty of Nanking, the five treaty ports including Shanghai were opened to foreign merchants, overturning the monopoly then held by the southern port of Canton (Guangzhou) under the Canton System. The British also established a base on Hong Kong. American and French involvement followed closely on the heels of the British and their enclaves were established north and south, respectively, of the British area.

Unlike the colonies of Hong Kong and

dropped out of the arrangement. The following year the British and American settlements formally united to create the Shanghai International Settlement. As more foreign powers entered into treaty relations with China, their nationals also became part of the administration of the settlement. The number of treaty powers had climbed to a high of 19 by 1918 but was down to 14 by the 1930s: the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, France, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Peru, Mexico, and Switzerland.

Nonetheless, the SMC remained a predominantly British affair until the growth of Japan's involvement in the late 1930s. The international character of the Settlement was reflected in the flag and seal of the Municipal Council, which featured the flags of several countries.^{[note 1]}

The international settlement came to an abrupt end in December 1941 when Japanese troops stormed in immediately following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. In early 1943, new treaties signed formally ended the extraterritorial privileges of Americans and Britons, although its terms were not met until the recovery of Shanghai following Japan's 1945 surrender. The French later surrendered their privileges in a separate agreement in February 1946.

It was one of two Chinese international settlements, along with

.

History

Arrival of the Americans, British and other Europeans

Although Europeans had shown more interest in Canton than Shanghai early on for commercial advantages, the port's strategic position was key to British interests as the island nation declared war against China in 1839, starting the first Anglo-Chinese Opium War. The first settlement in Shanghai for foreigners was the British settlement, opened in 1843 under the terms of the Treaty of Nanking.^[1] This treaty forced the Qing dynasty to make punitive territorial and economic concessions and would become the first of the 'unequal treaties' imposed upon China by its fellow great powers.^[2]

On the orders of Sir

The Treaty of Wanghia was signed in July 1844 under orders to "save the Chinese from the condition of being an exclusive monopoly in the hands of England" as a consequence of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. Under the Treaty of Wanghia, the Americans gained the same rights as those enjoyed by the British in China's treaty ports. It also contained a clause that effectively carved out Shanghai as an extraterritorial zone, though it did not actually give the American government a true legal concession.^[5]

Towards the end of the 19th century,

Municipal Council

On 11 July 1854 a committee of Western businessmen met and held the first annual meeting of the Shanghai Municipal Council (SMC, formally the Council for the Foreign Settlement North of the Yang-king-pang), ignoring protests of consular officials, and laid down the Land Regulations which established the principles of self-government. The aims of this first Council were simply to assist in the formation of roads, refuse collection, and taxation across the disparate Concessions.

In 1863 the American concession—land fronting the

to Suzhou Creek) to become the Shanghai International Settlement. The French concession remained independent and the Chinese retained control over the original walled city and the area surrounding the foreign enclaves. This would later result in sometimes absurd administrative outcomes, such as needing three drivers' licenses to travel through the complete city.

By the late-1860s Shanghai's official governing body had been practically transferred from the individual concessions to the Shanghai Municipal Council (工部局, literally "Works Department", from the standard English local government title of 'Board of works'). The British Consul was the de jure authority in the Settlement, but he had no actual power unless the ratepayers (who voted for the council) agreed. Instead, he and the other consulates deferred to the council.

The Bund

, 1928.

The council had become a practical monopoly over the city's businesses by the mid-1880s. It bought up all the local gas-suppliers, electricity producers and water-companies, then—during the 20th-century—took control over all non-private rickshaws and the Settlement tramways. It also regulated opium sales and prostitution until their banning in 1918 and 1920 respectively.

Until the late-1920s, therefore, the SMC and its subsidiaries, including the

No Chinese residing in the International Settlement were permitted to join the council until 1928. Amongst the many members who served on the council, its chairman during the 1920s,

.

By the early 1930s, the British and the Chinese each had five members on the council, the Japanese two and the Americans and others two.^[8] At the 1936 Council election, because of their increasing interests in the Settlement, the Japanese nominated three candidates. Only two were elected, which led to a Japanese protest after 323 uncounted votes were discovered. As a result, the election was declared invalid and a new poll held on April 20–21, 1936, at which the Japanese nominated only two candidates.^[9] In the case of the Chinese members, in 1926 the Ratepayers' Meeting adopted a resolution approving the addition of three Chinese members to the council and they took their seats for the first time in April, 1928; while in May, 1930, their number was increased to five.^[10]

The International Settlement was wholly foreign-controlled, with staff of all nationalities, including British, Americans, Danes, Dutch, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italians and Germans. In reality, the British held the largest number of seats on the council and headed all the Municipal departments (British included Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians, Newfoundlanders, and South Africans whose extraterritorial rights were established by the United Kingdom treaty).

The only department not chaired by a Briton was the Municipal Orchestra, which was controlled by an Italian.

The Settlement maintained its own fire-service, police force (the

, the Italians also introduced their own marines, as did the Japanese (whose troops eventually outnumbered the other countries' many times over).

Extra-settlement roads

From the 1860s, the Municipal Council began building roads beyond the concession boundaries, ostensibly to connect the concession with other properties or facilities which required the protection of Britain and other treaty powers during the unrest of the Taiping Rebellion. The Municipal Council obtained limited administrative powers over the areas adjacent to these "extra-settlement roads", making the area a "quasi-concession". The expansion of the International Settlement in 1899 took in most of the extra-settlement roads area, but from 1901 the Municipal Council began building further roads beyond the new boundary with a view to expanding the concession to cover those areas as well. However, a request to further expand the concession (inspired by a similar expansion of the French concession in 1914) was turned down by the Chinese government due to anti-imperialist sentiments. Britain, pre-occupied with

. After that battle, Japan took full control over the northern extra-settlement roads area and expelled International Settlement police. The neutrality of the western extra-settlement roads area survived in some form until the withdrawal of British troops in 1940.

Legal Status of the International Settlement

Article 28 of the International Settlement's Land Regulations stated unequivocally that "the land encompassed in the territory remains Chinese territory, subject to China's sovereign rights." As expressed by legal experts, "the self-governing International Settlement possesses no more power than the mere delegation of purely local and municipal powers and functions. Control of police, sanitation, roads, and other problems of local administration are granted to the Municipal Council simply because that body happens to be the one best equipped to deal with these matters in an area where the large majority of foreigners dwell. But the Municipal Council is in no sense a political body. Its powers, being delegated and hence limited, are subject to strict construction. What foreigners acquire is simply the delegated power of municipal administration, while the reserve powers remain in the sovereign grantor, the Chinese Government. Although under the control of the Consular Council, the area is still Chinese territory, over which China's sovereignty remains unsurrendered".

Hongkew Japantown

Rise of Imperial Japan (20th century)

In the 19th century, Europeans possessed

signed in 1895.

In 1915, during the

.

Japanese take over rest of Shanghai (1937)

In 1932 there were 1,040,780 Chinese living within the International Settlement, with another 400,000 fleeing into the area after the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937. For the next five years, the International Settlement and the French Concession were surrounded by Japanese occupiers and Chinese revolutionaries, with conflict often spilling into the Settlement's borders. In 1941, the Japanese launched an abortive political bid to take over the SMC: during a mass meeting of ratepayers at the Settlement Race Grounds, a Japanese official leaped up and shot William Keswick, then chairman of the council. While Keswick was only wounded, a near riot broke out.^[14]

Evacuation of British garrison

Britain evacuated its garrisons from mainland Chinese cities, particularly Shanghai, in August 1940.^[15]: 299

Japanese occupy the International Settlement (1941)

Anglo-American influence effectively ended after 8 December 1941, when the

considered itself neutral.

European residents of the International Settlement were forced to wear armbands to differentiate them, were evicted from their homes, and—just like Chinese citizens—were liable to maltreatment. All were liable for punitive punishments, torture and even death during the period of Japanese occupation. The Japanese sent European and American citizens to be interned at the

Shanghai was notable for a long period as the only place in the world that unconditionally offered refuge for Jews escaping from the Nazis.[18] These refugees often lived in squalid conditions in an area known as the Shanghai Ghetto in Hongkew. On 21 August 1941 the Japanese government closed Hongkew to Jewish immigration.^[19]

Return to Chinese rule

In February 1943, the International Settlement was de jure returned to the Chinese as part of the

.

After the war and the liberation of the city from the Japanese, a Liquidation Commission fitfully met to discuss the remaining details of the handover. By the end of 1945, most Westerners not actively involved in the Chinese Civil War (such as intelligence agents, soldiers, journalists, etc.) or in Shanghai's remaining foreign businesses, had left the city. With the defeat of the Kuomintang in 1949, the city was occupied by Communist People's Liberation Army and came under the control of the mayor of Shanghai.

The foreign architecture of the International Settlement era can still be seen today along

and in many locations around the city.

Legal system

The International Settlement did not have a unified legal system. The Municipal Council issued Land Regulations and regulations under this, that were binding on all people in the settlement. Other than this, citizens and subjects of powers that had treaties with China that provided for extraterritorial rights were subject to the laws of their own countries and civil and criminal complaints against them were required to be brought against them to their consular courts (courts overseen by consular officials) under the laws of their own countries.^[20]

The number of treaty powers had climbed to a high of 19 by 1918 but was down to 14 by the 1930s: the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, France, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Peru, Mexico, and Switzerland. Germany and Austria-Hungary lost their treaty rights after WWI, and Russia gave up her rights as a matter of political expediency. Belgium was declared by China to have lost her rights in 1927.^[21] Furthermore, the Chinese government adamantly refused to grant treaty power status to any of the new nations born in the wake of WWI, such as Austria and Hungary (formerly Austria-Hungary), Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, the Baltic states, or Finland.

Chinese citizens and citizens of non-treaty powers were subject to Chinese law. Inside the Settlement, cases against them would be brought to the Mixed Court, a court established in the Settlement in the 1864 which existed until 1926. In cases involving foreigners, a foreign assessor, usually a consular officer, would sit with the Chinese magistrate and in many cases acted like a judge. In 1927, a Provisional Court was established with a sole Chinese judge presiding. In 1930, Chinese Special Courts were established which had jurisdiction over all non-treaty power individuals and companies in the Settlement.

Two countries, Britain and the United States, established formal court systems in China to try cases. The

was established in the US Consulate in 1906. Both courts were occupied by the Japanese on 8 December 1941 and effectively ceased to function from that date.

Currency

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The currency situation in China was very complicated in the 19th century, as there was no unified monetary system. Different parts of China operated different systems, and the

.

In Shanghai, this complexity represented a microcosm of the complicated economy existing elsewhere along the China coast. The Chinese reckoned in weights of silver, which did not necessarily correspond to circulating coins. One important unit was a

at one time issued banknotes in Shanghai that were denominated in Mexican dollars).

dollars of the United States and Canada, leading to a rising economic depression.

The Chinese themselves officially adopted the dollar unit as their national currency in 1889, and the first Chinese dollar coins, known as

Banknotes tended to be issued in dollars, either worded as such or as yuan.

Despite the complications arising from a mixture of Chinese and Spanish coinages, there was one overwhelming unifying factor binding all the systems in use:

Nanking

for distribution.

Postal services

Shanghai had developed a

set of K1-18, "Offices in China".

The British originally used British postage stamps overprinted with the local currency amount, but from 1868, the British changed to Hong Kong postage stamps already denominated in dollars. However, in the special case of Shanghai, in the year 1865 the International Settlement began to issue its own postage stamps, denominated in the local Shanghai tael unit.

The Shanghai Post Office controlled all post within the Settlement, but post entering or leaving the treaty port was required to go through the Chinese Imperial Post Office. In 1922 the various foreign postal services, the Shanghai Post Office, and the Chinese Post Office were all brought together into a single Chinese Post Office, thus extending the 1914 membership of the Chinese Post Office to the Universal Postal Union to the Shanghai Post Office. Some other foreign countries refused to fall under this new postal service's remit, however; for many years, Japan notably sent almost all its mail to Shanghai in diplomatic bags, which could not be opened by postal staff.

The General Shanghai Post Office was first located on Beijing Road and moved to the location on Sichuan North Road of the General Post Office Building that is today the Shanghai Post Museum.

Music

International merchants brought with them amateur musical talent that manifested in the creation of the Shanghai Philharmonic Society in 1868.^[24] From here, the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra was officially formed in 1879.^[25]

In 1938, the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra faced disbandment as the ratepayers in the annual Municipal Council meeting considered reallocating budgets away from the orchestra, since it was "western and unnecessary." However, after much discussion, they decided to keep the orchestra, acknowledging that its educational value was much greater than the cost of keeping it up.^[26] The Shanghai Municipal Orchestra had the financial and verbal backing of many other larger countries, including Italy, who donated 50,000 lire to the orchestra,^[27] the France Council, who acted as a defending argument for the maintenance of the orchestra,^[26] and Japan, whose Viscount Konoye encouraged the Japanese people to support the orchestra and the culture that it brought to the East.^[28]

In addition to the string orchestra, opera and choral music were favored forms of entertainment. Often, the orchestra would accompany singers as a part of orchestra concerts, in addition to the symphonies and other pieces that they played, or just in choral or opera concerts.^[29]

List of chairmen of the Shanghai Municipal Council

1. Edward Cunningham (25.5.1852 – 21.7.1853, as Chairman of the Committee on Roads and Jetties, the Municipal Council's predecessor)
2. William Shepard Wetmore (21.7.1853 – 11.7.1854, as Chairman of the Committee on Roads and Jetties)
3. James Lawrence Man (11.7.1854 – 1855)
4. Christopher Augustus Fearon (1855)
5. William Shepard Wetmore (3.1855 – 1855)
6. William Thorbun (1855–1856)
7. James Lawrence Man (1.1856 – 31.1.1857)
8. George Watson Coutts (31.1.1857 – 1.1858)
9. John Thorne (1.1858 – 1.1859)
10. Robert Reid (31.1.1859 – 15.2.1860)
11. Rowland Hamilton (15.2.1860 – 2.2.1861)
12. William Howard (2.2.1861 – 31.3.1862)
13. Henry Turner (31.3.1862 – 4.4.1863)
14. Henry William Dent (4.4.1863 – 25.4.1865)
15. William Keswick (25.4.1865 – 18.4.1866)
16. F.B. Johnson (18.4.1866 – 3.1868)
17. Edward Cunningham (3.1868 – 2.4.1870)
18. George Basil Dixwell (2.4.1870 – 4.4.1871)
19. John Dent (4.4.1871 – 1.1873)
20. Robert Inglis Fearon (1.1873 – 16.4.1874)
21. John Graeme Purdon (16.4.1874 – 1876)
22. Alfred Adolphus Krauss (1876 – 1.1877)
23. J. Hart (1.1877 – 16.1.1879)
24. Robert "Bob" W. Little (16.1.1879 – 30.1.1882)
25. H.R. Hearn (30.1.1882 – 1882)
26. Walter Cyril Ward (1882–1883)
27. Alexander Myburgh (1883 – 22.1.1884)
28. James Johnstone Keswick (22.1.1884 – 22.1.1886)
29. A.G. Wood (22.1.1886 – 1889)
30. John Macgregor (1889 – 5.1891)
31. John Graeme Purdon (5.1891 – 1.1893)
32. John Macgregor (1.1893 – 7.11.1893)
33. James Lidderdale Scott (11.1893 – 26.1.1897)
34. Edward Albert Probst (26.1.1897 – 21.4.1897)
35. Albert Robson Burkill (12.5.1897 – 1.1898)
36. James S. Fearon (1.1898 – 8.1899)
    • Joseph Welch, acting (3.8.1898 – 30.11.1898)
37. 
    Frederick Anderson
    (8.1899 – 1.1900)
38. 
    Edbert Ansgar Hewett
    (8.1900 – 25.1.1901)
39. John Prentice (26.1.1901 – 25.1.1902)
40. William George Bayne (25.1.1902 – 1904)
41. 
    Frederick Anderson
    (1904 – 25.1.1906)
42. Cecil Holliday (25.1.1906 – 24.8.1906)
43. 
    Henry Keswick
    (24.8.1906 – 5.1907)
44. David Landale (5.1907 – 17.1.1911)
45. Harry De Gray (17.1.1911 – 24.1.1913)
46. Edward Charles Pearce (24.1.1913 – 17.2.1920)
47. Alfred Brooke-Smith (17.2.1920 – 17.3.1922)
48. 
    H.G. Simms
    (17.3.1922 – 12.10.1923)
49. Stirling Fessenden (12.10.1923 – 5.3.1929)
50. Harry Edward Arnhold (5.3.1929 – 1930)
51. Ernest Brander Macnaghten (1930 – 22.3.1932)
52. A.D. Bell (22.3.1932 – 27.3.1934)
53. Harry Edward Arnhold (27.3.1934 – 4.1937)
54. Cornell Franklin (4.1937 – 4.1940)
55. William Johnstone "Tony" Keswick (4.1940 – 1.5.1941)
56. John Hellyer Liddell (1.5.1941 – 5.1.1942)
57. Katsuo Okazaki (5.1.1942 – 1.8.1943)

Notable people

Born in the International Settlement

• J. G. Ballard, British writer. His acclaimed novel Empire of the Sun is set in the International Settlement and other parts of Shanghai.
• Mary Hayley Bell, British actress
• Pat Carney, Canadian politician
• Eileen Chang, Chinese-American writer
• Eunice Crowther, British dancer and choreographer
• Edmond H. Fischer, Swiss-American Nobel Prize–winning biochemist
• Hu Hesheng, Chinese mathematician
• Thierry Jordan, French clergyman and former Archbishop of Reims
• China Machado, Portuguese-Macanese model, Harpers Bazaar editor, TV producer and designer
• Qian Xuesen, Chinese aerospace engineer and father of China's missile and space program
• Jane Scott, Duchess of Buccleuch, British duchess and fashion model

Residents of the International Settlement

• J. Howard Crocker, Canadian educator and sports executive with the YMCA, and commissioned officer in the Shanghai Volunteer Corps^[30][31]

Relation with the French Concession

The French Concession was governed by a separate municipal council, under the direction of the consul general. The French Concession was not part of the International Settlement, but had economic interests in it as evidenced by the presence of the French flag on the seal and the flag of the Municipal Council.

See also

• American Concession (Shanghai)
• Shanghai French Concession
• List of former foreign enclaves in China
• Astor House Hotel (Shanghai)
• British Supreme Court for China and Japan
• The Bund
• China Marines
• Former Consulate-General of the United Kingdom, Shanghai
• Klaus Mehnert
• List of historic buildings in Shanghai
• Richard Sorge
• Shanghai Club
• Shanghai Municipal Police
• Tilanqiao Prison (formerly Ward Road Gaol)
• United States Court for China
• When We Were Orphans
• The Blue Lotus
• Empire of the Sun (novel)
• Maiden Voyage (novel)
• Free City of Trieste
• Free City of Danzig

Notes

References

Citations

1. ^ Darwent, Charles Ewart. Shanghai; a handbook for travelers and residents to the chief objects of interest in and around the foreign settlements and native city. Shanghai, Hongkong: Kelly and Walsh [date of publication not identified].
2. ISBN 0-7007-1145-7
   .
3. ^ Hawkes, Francis Lister (4 March 2007), A Short History of Shanghai, Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, archived from the original on 4 March 2016, retrieved 10 March 2014
4. ^ Hauser 1940, p. 10.
5. ^ Sergeant, H. Shanghai (1998) at pp. 16–17.
6. ISBN 978-1-5275-2356-2
   .
7. ISBN 978-0-313-32383-6
   .
8. ^ "Shanghai International Settlement Elections: Japan Demand New Ballot". Dundee Evening Telegraph. 26 March 1936. Retrieved 18 November 2014 – via British Newspaper Archive.
9. ISBN 978-0-8047-1066-4
   .
10. ^ H. L., "The International Status of Shanghai", Bulletin of International News (Royal Institute of International Affairs), Vol. 14, No. 12 (Dec. 11, 1937), p. 543.
11. ^ "The Queen's join the China Station 1927". www.queensroyalsurreys.org.uk. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
12. ^ C. F. Fraser, "The Status of the International Settlement at Shanghai", Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, British Institute of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1939), p. 45.
13. JSTOR 754551
    . Retrieved 8 September 2018.
14. ^ "The Lewiston Daily Sun – Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
15. ISBN 9781878685582
16. ^ Wetten, Desmond. The Lonely Battle. W.H. Allen (1960) ASIN: B0000CKH0A
17. Independent.co.uk
    . 9 March 2014.
18. ^ Wasserstein, B. Secret War in Shanghai (1999) at pp 140–150.
19. ^ Avraham Altman, and Irene Eber. "Flight to Shanghai, 1938–1940: the larger setting." Yad Vashem Studies 28 (2000): 51–86. online
20. ^ Manley O. Hudson, "The Rendition of the International Mixed Court at Shanghai." American Journal of International Law 21.3 (1927): 451–471.
21. ^ William C. Johnstone, "International Relations: The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China", The American Political Science Review, no 5, Oct. 1937, p. 942.
22. ISBN 9780896895003
    – via Google Books.
23. ^ http://www.stampnotes.com/Notes_from_the_Past/pastnote432.htm Archived 29 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Postal Agency in Shanghai
24. ProQuest 1321172660
    .
25. ProQuest 1324910318
    .
26. ^
    ProQuest 1371344324
    .
27. ProQuest 1371435956
    .
28. ProQuest 1416718873
    .
29. ProQuest 1369467847
    .
30. ^ "Mr. J. H. Crocker Tells Of Work at Shanghai". Brantford Expositor. Brantford, Ontario. 15 February 1912. p. 7.
31. OCLC 61578234
    .

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External links

• Media related to Shanghai International Settlement at Wikimedia Commons