Shapeshifting

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)
"Metamorph" redirects here. Not to be confused with The Metamorph, Metamorphism, Metamorpha, or Metamorphosis.
"Shapeshift" redirects here. For the Swiss company, see ShapeShift.
"Shapeshifter" redirects here. For other uses, see Shapeshifter (disambiguation).
"Transmogrification" redirects here. For other uses, see Transmogrify (disambiguation).
Tsarevna Frog (or The Frog Princess), by Viktor Vasnetsov, tells of a frog that metamorphoses into a princess.
Louhi, Mistress of the North, attacking Väinämöinen in the form of a giant eagle with her troops on her back when she was trying to steal Sampo; in the Finnish epic poetry Kalevala by Elias Lönnrot. (The Defense of the Sampo, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, 1896)
Galligantua and the wicked old magician transform the duke's daughter into a white hind." by Arthur Rackham
Loge feigns fear as Alberich turns into a giant snake. Wotan stands in the background; illustration by Arthur Rackham to Richard Wagner's Das Rheingold

In

mythology, folklore and speculative fiction, shapeshifting is the ability to physically transform oneself through unnatural means. The idea of shapeshifting is in the oldest forms of totemism and shamanism, as well as the oldest existent literature and epic poems such as the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Iliad. The concept remains a common literary device in modern fantasy, children's literature and popular culture
.

Folklore and mythology

1722 German woodcut of a werewolf transforming

Popular shapeshifting creatures in folklore are

gray wolf is specifically known as lycanthropy, and such creatures who undergo such change are called lycanthropes. Therianthropy is the more general term for human-animal shifts, but it is rarely used in that capacity. It was also common for deities to transform mortals into animals and plants
.

Other terms for shapeshifters include metamorph, the Navajo skin-walker, mimic, and therianthrope. The prefix "were-", coming from the Old English word for "man" (masculine rather than generic), is also used to designate shapeshifters; despite its root, it is used to indicate female shapeshifters as well.

While the popular idea of a shapeshifter is of a human being who turns into something else, there are numerous stories about animals that can transform themselves as well.[1]

Greco-Roman

Main article: Metamorphoses in Greek mythology
Vertumnus, in the form of an old woman, wooing Pomona, by Gerbrand van den Eeckhout.

Examples of shapeshifting in

The Odyssey, and Apuleius's Lucius becoming a donkey in The Golden Ass. Proteus was noted among the gods for his shapeshifting; both Menelaus and Aristaeus seized him to win information from him, and succeeded only because they held on during his various changes. Nereus told Heracles where to find the Apples of the Hesperides
for the same reason.

The

Oceanid Metis
, the first wife of Zeus and the mother of the goddess Athena was believed to be able to change her appearance into anything she wanted. In one story, she was so proud, that her husband, Zeus, tricked her into changing into a fly. He then swallowed her because he feared that he and Metis would have a son who would be more powerful than Zeus himself. Metis, however, was already pregnant. She stayed alive inside his head and built armor for her daughter. The banging of her metalworking made Zeus have a headache, so Hephaestus clove his head with an axe. Athena sprang from her father's head, fully grown, and in battle armor.

The Children of Lir, transformed into swans in Irish tales

In Greek mythology, the transformation is often a punishment from the gods to humans who crossed them.

While the Greek gods could use transformation punitively – such as Medusa, who turned to a monster for having sexual intercourse (raped in Ovid's version) with Poseidon in Athena's temple – even more frequently, the tales using it are of amorous adventure. Zeus repeatedly transformed himself to approach mortals as a means of gaining access:[2]

Gianlorenzo Bernini, Apollo pursuing an unwilling Daphne
who transforms into a laurel tree

Vertumnus transformed himself into an old woman to gain entry to Pomona's orchard; there, he persuaded her to marry him.

In other tales, the woman appealed to other gods to protect her from rape, and was transformed (Daphne into laurel, Corone into a crow). Unlike Zeus and other gods' shapeshifting, these women were permanently metamorphosed.

In one tale, Demeter transformed herself into a mare to escape Poseidon, but Poseidon counter-transformed himself into a stallion to pursue her, and succeeded in the rape. Caenis, having been raped by Poseidon, demanded of him that she be changed to a man. He agreed, and she became Caeneus, a form he never lost, except, in some versions, upon death.

Clytie was a nymph who loved Helios, but he did not love her back. Desperate, she sat on a rock with no food or water for nine days looking at him as he crossed the skies, until she was transformed into a purple, sun-gazing flower, the heliotropium.

As a final reward from the gods for their hospitality, Baucis and Philemon were transformed, at their deaths, into a pair of trees.

Eos, the goddess of the dawn, secured immortality for her lover the Trojan prince Tithonus, but not eternal youth, so he aged without dying as he shriveled and grew more and more helpless. In the end, Eos transformed him into a cicada.

In some variants of the tale of Narcissus, he is turned into a narcissus flower.

"Cadmus Sowing the Dragon's Teeth" by Maxfield Parrish

Sometimes metamorphoses transform objects into humans. In the myths of both Jason and Cadmus, one task set to the hero was to sow dragon's teeth; on being sown, they would metamorphose into belligerent warriors, and both heroes had to throw a rock to trick them into fighting each other to survive. Deucalion and Pyrrha repopulated the world after a flood by throwing stones behind them; they were transformed into people. Cadmus is also often known to have transformed into a dragon or serpent towards the end of his life. Pygmalion fell in love with Galatea, a statue he had made. Aphrodite had pity on him and transformed the stone into a living woman.

British and Irish

wizards were all noted for their shapeshifting ability. Not all fairies could shapeshift, some having only the appearance of shapeshifting, through their power, called "glamour", to create illusions, and some were limited to changing their size, as with the spriggans, and others to a few forms.[3] But others, such as the Hedley Kow, could change to many forms, and both human and supernatural wizards were capable of both such changes, and inflicting them on others.[4]

Witches could turn into hares and in that form steal milk and butter.[5]

Many British fairy tales, such as

The Black Bull of Norroway
, feature shapeshifting.

Celtic mythology

Pwyll was transformed by Arawn into Arawn's shape, and Arawn transformed himself into Pwyll's so that they could trade places for a year and a day.

Llwyd ap Cil Coed transformed his wife and attendants into mice to attack a crop in revenge; when his wife is captured, he turns himself into three clergymen in succession to try to pay a ransom.

Math fab Mathonwy and Gwydion transform flowers into a woman named Blodeuwedd, and when she betrays her husband Lleu Llaw Gyffes, who is transformed into an eagle, they transform her again, into an owl.

Gilfaethwy committed rape on Goewin, Math fab Mathonwy's virgin foothold, with help from his brother Gwydion. Both were transformed into animals, for one year each. Gwydion was transformed into a stag, sow, and wolf, and Gilfaethwy into a hind, boar, and she-wolf. Each year, they had a child. Math turned the three young animals into boys.

Gwion, having accidentally taken some of the wisdom potions that Ceridwen was brewing for her son, fled from her through a succession of changes that she answered with changes of her own, ending with his being eaten, a grain of corn, by her as a hen. She became pregnant, and he was reborn in a new form, as Taliesin.

Tales abound about the selkie, a seal that can remove its skin to make contact with humans for only a short amount of time before it must return to the sea. Clan MacColdrum of Uist's foundation myths include a union between the founder of the clan and a shape-shifting selkie.[6] Another such creature is the Scottish selkie, which needs its sealskin to regain its form. In The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry the (male) selkie seduces a human woman. Such stories surrounding these creatures are usually romantic tragedies.

Kelpie by Herbert James Draper: transformed into a human

Scottish mythology features shapeshifters, which allows the various creatures to trick, deceive, hunt, and kill humans. Water spirits such as the each-uisge, which inhabit lochs and waterways in Scotland, were said to appear as a horse or a young man.[4] Other tales include kelpies who emerge from lochs and rivers in the disguise of a horse or woman to ensnare and kill weary travelers. Tam Lin, a man captured by the Queen of the Fairies is changed into all manner of beasts before being rescued. He finally turned into a burning coal and was thrown into a well, whereupon he reappeared in his human form. The motif of capturing a person by holding him through all forms of transformation is a common thread in folktales.[7]

Perhaps the best-known Irish myth is that of Aoife who turned her stepchildren, the Children of Lir, into swans to be rid of them. Likewise, in the Tochmarc Étaíne, Fuamnach jealously turns Étaín into a butterfly. The most dramatic example of shapeshifting in Irish myth is that of Tuan mac Cairill, the only survivor of Partholón's settlement of Ireland. In his centuries-long life, he became successively a stag, a wild boar, a hawk, and finally a salmon before being eaten and (as in the Wooing of Étaín) reborn as a human.

The Púca is a Celtic faery, and also a deft shapeshifter. He can transform into many different, terrifying forms.

Fer Doirich
when she spurned his amorous interests.

Norse

There is a significant amount of literature about shapeshifters that appear in a variety of Norse tales.[8]

In the Lokasenna, Odin and Loki taunt each other with having taken the form of females and nursing offspring to which they had given birth. A 13th-century Edda relates Loki taking the form of a mare to bear Odin's steed Sleipnir which was the fastest horse ever to exist, and also the form of a she-wolf to bear Fenrir.[9]

Svipdagr angered Odin, who turned him into a dragon. Despite his monstrous appearance, his lover, the goddess Freyja, refused to leave his side. When the warrior Hadding found and slew Svipdagr, Freyja cursed him to be tormented by a tempest and shunned like the plague wherever he went.[citation needed] In the Hyndluljóð, Freyja transformed her protégé Óttar into a boar to conceal him. She also possessed a cloak of falcon feathers that allowed her to transform into a falcon, which Loki borrowed on occasion.

The

Volsunga saga contains many shapeshifting characters. Siggeir's mother changed into a wolf to help torture his defeated brothers-in-law with slow and ignominious deaths. When one, Sigmund, survived, he and his nephew and son Sinfjötli killed men wearing wolfskins; when they donned the skins themselves, they were cursed to become werewolves.[10]

The dwarf Andvari is described as being able to magically turn into a pike. Alberich, his counterpart in Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen, using the Tarnhelm, takes on many forms, including a giant serpent and a toad, in a failed attempt to impress or intimidate Loki and Odin/Wotan.

greed—while guarding his ill-gotten hoard. His brother, Ótr
, enjoyed spending time as an otter, which led to his accidental slaying by Loki.

In Scandinavia, there existed, for example, the famous race of she-werewolves known by the name of Maras, women who took on the appearance of huge half-human and half-wolf monsters that stalked the night in search of human or animal prey. If a woman gives birth at midnight and stretches the membrane that envelopes the child when it is brought forth, between four sticks and creeps through it, naked, she will bear children without pain; but all the boys will be shamans, and all the girls Maras.[citation needed]

The Nisse is sometimes said to be a shapeshifter. This trait also is attributed to Hulder.

Icelandic Sagas, according to which she was the wife of Eric Bloodaxe
, was credited with magic powers – including the power of shapeshifting and turning at will into a bird. She is the central character of the novel Mother of Kings by Poul Anderson,[11] which considerably elaborates on her shapeshifting abilities.

Indian

  • Shapeshifting cobra: A common male cobra will become an ichchadhari naag (male shapeshifting cobra) and a common female cobra will become an ichchadhari naagin (female shapeshifting cobra) after 100 years of tapasya (penance). After being blessed by Lord Shiva, they attain a human form of their own, can shapeshift into any living creature, and can live for more than a hundred years without getting old.
  • Yoginis were associated with the power of shapeshifting into female animals.[12]
  • In the Indian fable The Dog Bride from Folklore of the Santal Parganas by Cecil Henry Bompas, a buffalo herder falls in love with a dog that has the power to turn into a woman when she bathes.
  • In Kerala, there was a legend about the Odiyan clan, who in Kerala folklore are men believed to possess shapeshifting abilities and can assume animal forms. Odiyans are said to have inhabited the Malabar region of Kerala before the widespread use of electricity.

Armenian

In Armenian mythology, shapeshifters include the Nhang, a serpentine river monster that can transform itself into a woman or seal, and will drown humans and then drink their blood; or the beneficial Shahapet, a guardian spirit that can appear either as a man or a snake.[13]

Philippines

Philippine mythology includes the Aswang, a vampiric monster capable of transforming into a bat, a large black dog, a black cat, a black boar, or some other form to stalk humans at night. The folklore also mentions other beings such as the Kapre, the Tikbalang, and the Engkanto, which change their appearances to woo beautiful maidens. Also, talismans (called "anting-anting" or "birtud" in the local dialect), can give their owners the ability to shapeshift. In one tale, Chonguita the Monkey Wife,[14] a woman is turned into a monkey, only becoming human again if she can marry a handsome man.

Tatar

Tatar folklore includes Yuxa, a hundred-year-old snake that can transform itself into a beautiful young woman, and seeks to marry men to have children.

"Madame White Snake" Picture on long veranda in the Summer Palace, Beijing, China

Chinese

Madame White Snake
is one such legend; a snake falls in love with a man, and the story recounts the trials she and her husband faced.

Japanese

Kuzunoha the fox woman, casting a fox shadow

In Japanese folklore obake are a type of yōkai with the ability to shapeshifting. The fox, or kitsune is among the most commonly known, but other such creatures include the bakeneko, the mujina, and the tanuki.

Korean

Korean mythology also contains a fox with the ability to shapeshift. Unlike its Chinese and Japanese counterparts, the kumiho is always malevolent. Usually its form is of a beautiful young woman; one tale recounts a man, a would-be seducer, revealed as a kumiho.[15] The kumiho has nine tails and as she desires to be a full human, she uses her beauty to seduce men and eat their hearts (or in some cases livers where the belief is that 100 livers would turn her into a real human).

Somali

In Somali mythology Qori ismaris ("One who rubs himself with a stick") was a man who could transform himself into a "Hyena-man" by rubbing himself with a magic stick at nightfall and by repeating this process could return to his human state before dawn.

Southern Africa

praying mantis but also a bull eland, a louse, a snake, and a caterpillar.[17]

South American

Amazon river dolphins are curious and lack of fear of foreign objects,[18] are apex predators,[19] and the male Amazon river dolphins are very physically agressive during their mating period, partiularly around the courtship practice of object carrying.[20][21]

Amazon river dolphins, known by the natives as the boto, encantados or toninhas, are very prevalent in the mythology of the native South Americans. They are frequently characterized in mythology with superior musical ability, seductiveness and love of sex, resulting in illegitimate children, and attraction to parties. Despite the fact that the Encante are said to come from a utopia full of wealth which is also without pain or death, they crave the pleasures and hardships of human societies.[22]

Transformation into human form is said to be rare, and usually occurs at night. The encantado will often be seen running from a festa, despite protests from the others for it to stay, and can be seen by pursuers as it hurries to the river and reverts to dolphin form. When it is under human form, it wears a hat to hide its blowhole, which does not disappear with the shapeshift.[22]

Besides the ability to shapeshift into human form, encantados frequently wield other magical abilities, such as controlling storms, hypnotizing humans into doing their will, transforming humans into encantados, and inflicting illness, insanity, and even death. Shamans often intervene in these situations.[22]

Along with shapeshifting,

dolphin genitalia bear a resemblance to those of humans. Others believe the myth served (and still serves) as a way of hiding the incestuous relations which are quite common in some small, isolated communities along the river.[23]
Legend also states that "if a person makes eye contact with an Amazon river dolphin, they will have lifelong nightmares".[24]

Trinidad and Tobago

The Ligahoo or loup-garou is the shapeshifter of Trinidad and Tobago's folklore. This unique ability is believed to be handed down in some old creole families, and is usually associated with witch-doctors and practitioners of African magic.[25] [26]

Mapuche (Argentina and Chile)

The name of the

sorcery
has been transformed into a puma" (or jaguar).

Slavic mythology

In

Slavic mythology, one of the main gods Veles was a shapeshifting god of animals, magic and the underworld. He was often represented as a bear, wolf, snake or owl.[27] He also became a dragon while fighting Perun, the Slavic storm god.[28]

Folktales

Themes

Shapeshifting may be used as a plot device, such as when Puss in Boots in the fairy tales tricks the ogre into becoming a mouse to be eaten. Shapeshifting may also include symbolic significance, like the Beast's transformation in Beauty and the Beast indicates Belle's ability to accept him despite his appearance.[33]

When a form is taken on involuntarily, the thematic effect can be one of confinement and restraint; the person is bound to the new form. In extreme cases, such as petrifaction, the character is entirely disabled. On the other hand, voluntary shapeshifting can be a means of escape and liberation. Even when the form is not undertaken to resemble a literal escape, the abilities specific to the form allow the character to act in a manner that was previously impossible.

Examples of this are in

The She-Bear) escapes with her new shape.[34] In the Earthsea books, Ursula K. Le Guin depicts an animal form as slowly transforming the wizard's mind, so that the dolphin, bear or other creature forgets it was human, making it impossible to change back. This makes an example of a voluntary shapeshifting becoming an imprisoning metamorphosis.[35]
Beyond this, the uses of shapeshifting, transformation, and metamorphosis in fiction are as protean as the forms the characters take on. Some are rare, such as Italo Calvino's "The Canary Prince" is a Rapunzel variant in which shape-shifting is used to gain access to the tower.

Punitive changes

In many cases, imposed forms are punitive. This may be a just punishment, the nature of the transformation matching the crime for which it occurs; in other cases, the form is unjustly imposed by an angry and powerful person. In fairy tales, such transformations are usually temporary, but they commonly appear as the

resolution of myths (as in many of the Metamorphoses) or produce origin myths
.

"Svipdag transformed" by John Bauer

Transformation chase

In many fairy tales and ballads, as in Child Ballad #44, The Twa Magicians or Farmer Weathersky, a magical chase occurs where the pursued endlessly takes on forms in an effort to shake off the pursuer, and the pursuer answers with shapeshifting, as, a dove is answered with a hawk and a hare with a greyhound. The pursued may finally succeed in escape or the pursuer in capturing.

The Grimm Brothers' fairy tale

Gianbattista Basile
, tells of a Neapolitan princess who, to escape from her father who had imprisoned her, becomes a huge she-bear. The magic happens due to a potion given to her by an old witch. The girl, once gone, can regain her human aspect.

In other variants, the pursued may transform various objects into obstacles, as in the fairy tale "The Master Maid", where the Master Maid transforms a wooden comb into a forest, a lump of salt into a mountain, and a flask of water into a sea. In these tales, the pursued normally escapes after overcoming three obstacles.[36] This obstacle chase is literally found worldwide, in many variants in every region.[37]

In fairy tales of the

Aarne–Thompson type 313A, The Girl Helps the Hero Flee, such a chase is an integral part of the tale. It can be either a transformation chase (as in The Grateful Prince, King Kojata, Foundling-Bird, Jean, the Soldier, and Eulalie, the Devil's Daughter, or The Two Kings' Children) or an obstacle chase (as in The Battle of the Birds, The White Dove, or The Master Maid).[38]

In a similar effect, a captive may shapeshift to break a hold on him. Proteus and Nereus's shapeshifting was to prevent heroes such as Menelaus and Heracles from forcing information from them.[39] Tam Lin, once seized by Janet, was transformed by the faeries to keep Janet from taking him, but as he had advised her, she did not let go, and so freed him.[40] The motif of capturing a person by holding him through many transformations is found in folktales throughout Europe,[7] and Patricia A. McKillip references it in her Riddle-Master trilogy: a shape-shifting Earthmaster finally wins its freedom by startling the man holding it.

Powers

One motif is a shape change in order to obtain abilities in the new form. Berserkers were held to change into wolves and bears to fight more effectively. In many cultures, evil magicians could transform into animal shapes and thus skulk about.

In many fairy tales, the hero's talking animal helper proves to be a shapeshifted human being, able to help him in its animal form. In one variation, featured in The Three Enchanted Princes and The Death of Koschei the Deathless, the hero's three sisters have been married to animals. These prove to be shapeshifted men, who aid their brother-in-law in a variant of tale types.[41]

In an early Mayan text, the Shapeshifter, or Mestaclocan, can change his appearance and manipulate the minds of animals. In one tale, the Mestaclocan finds a dying eagle. Changing into the form of an eagle, he convinces the dying bird that it is, in fact, not dying. As the story goes they both soar into the heavens and live together for eternity.

Bildungsroman

Beauty and the Beast has been interpreted as a young woman's coming-of-age, in which she changes from being repulsed by sexual activity and regarding a husband therefore bestial, to a mature woman who can marry.[42]

Needed items

Valkyries
as swan maidens, having shed their swan skins.

Some shapeshifters can change form only if they have some item, usually an article of clothing. In Bisclavret by Marie de France, a werewolf cannot regain human form without his clothing, but in wolf form does no harm to anyone. However, the most common use of this motif is in tales where a man steals the article and forces the shapeshifter, trapped in human form, to become his bride. This lasts until she discovers where he has hidden the article, and she can flee. Selkies feature in these tales. Others include swan maidens and the Japanese tennin.

Swedish writer Selma Lagerlöf, in The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, included a version of the story with the typical elements (fisherman sees mermaids dancing on an island and steals the sealskin of one of them, preventing her from becoming a seal again so that he could marry her) and linked it to the founding of the city of Stockholm.[43]

Inner conflict

The power to externally transform can symbolize an internal savagery; a central theme in many strands of werewolf mythology,[44] and the inversion of the "liberation" theme, as in Dr Jekyll's transformation into Mr. Hyde.

Usurpation

Sister Alenushka Weeping about Brother Ivanushka by Viktor Vasnetsov, Russian variant of Brother and Sister: Alenushka laments her brother's transformation into a goat.

Some transformations are performed to remove the victim from his place so that the transformer can usurp it.

Bisclaveret's wife steals his clothing and traps him in wolf form because she has a lover. A witch, in The Wonderful Birch, changed a mother into a sheep to take her place, and had the mother slaughtered; when her stepdaughter married the king, the witch transformed her into a reindeer to put her daughter in the queen's place. In the Korean Transformation of the Kumiho, a kumiho, a fox with magical powers, transforms itself into an image of the bride, only being detected when her clothing is removed. In Brother and Sister, when two children flee from their cruel stepmother, she enchants the streams along the way to transform them. While the brother refrains from the first two, which threaten to turn them into tigers and wolves, he is too thirsty at the third, which turns him into a deer. The Six Swans are transformed into swans by their stepmother,[45]
as are the Children of Lir in Irish mythology.

Ill-advised wishes

Many fairy-tale characters have expressed ill-advised wishes to have any child at all, even one that has another form, and had such children born to them.[46] At the end of the fairy tale, normally after marriage, such children metamorphose into human form. Hans My Hedgehog was born when his father wished for a child, even a hedgehog. Even stranger forms are possible: Giambattista Basile included in his Pentamerone the tale of a girl born as a sprig of myrtle, and Italo Calvino, in his Italian Folktales, a girl born as an apple.

Sometimes, the parent who wishes for a child is told how to gain one but does not obey the directions perfectly, resulting in a transformed birth. In Prince Lindworm, the woman eats two onions but does not peel one, resulting in her first child being a lindworm. In Tatterhood, a woman magically produces two flowers, but disobeys the directions to eat only the beautiful one, resulting in her having a beautiful and sweet daughter, but only after a disgusting and hideous one.

Less commonly, ill-advised wishes can transform a person after birth. The Seven Ravens are transformed when their father thinks his sons are playing instead of fetching water to christen their newborn and sickly sister, and curses them.[47] In Puddocky, when three princes start to quarrel over the beautiful heroine, a witch curses her because of the noise.

Monstrous bride/bridegroom

See also: Animal as Bridegroom

Such wished-for children may become monstrous brides or bridegrooms. These tales have often been interpreted as symbolically representing arranged marriages; the bride's revulsion to marrying a stranger is symbolized by his bestial form.[48]

The heroine must fall in love with the transformed groom. The hero or heroine must marry, as promised, and the monstrous form is removed by the wedding.

Child ballad 34, Kemp Owyne, where the hero can transform a dragon back into a maiden by kissing her three times.[50]

Sometimes the bridegroom removes his animal skin for the wedding night, whereupon it can be burned. Hans My Hedgehog, The Donkey and The Pig King fall under this grouping. At an extreme, in Prince Lindworm, the bride who avoids being eaten by the lindworm bridegroom arrives at her wedding wearing every gown she owns, and she tells the bridegroom she will remove one of hers if he removes one of his; only when her last gown comes off has he removed his last skin, and become a white shape that she can form into a man.[1]

In some tales, the hero or heroine must obey a prohibition; the bride must spend a period not seeing the transformed groom in human shape (as in East of the Sun and West of the Moon), or the bridegroom must not burn the animals' skins. In The Brown Bear of Norway, The Golden Crab, The Enchanted Snake and some variants of The Frog Princess, burning the skin is a catastrophe, putting the transformed bride or bridegroom in danger. In these tales, the prohibition is broken, invariably, resulting in a separation and a search by one spouse for the other.[1]

Death

Ghosts sometimes appear in animal form. In

The Rose Tree and The Juniper Tree, the murdered children become birds who avenge their own deaths. There are African folk tales of murder victims avenging themselves in the form of crocodiles that can shapeshift into human form.[51]

In some fairy tales, the character can reveal himself in every new form, and so a usurper repeatedly kills the victim in every new form, as in Beauty and Pock Face, A String of Pearls Twined with Golden Flowers, and The Boys with the Golden Stars. This eventually leads to a form in which the character (or characters) can reveal the truth to someone able to stop the villain.

Similarly, the transformation back may be acts that would be fatal. In

Scylla, Scylla's father Nisus
turns into an eagle after death and drowns her daughter for betraying her father.

Modern

Fiction

Popular culture

  • The X-Files features a species known as the Colonists who are infiltrating Earth to colonize the planet.
  • In David Icke's works, reptilian shapeshifters secretly controls many aspects of human society by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate humanity.
  • In the Doctor Who serial "The Faceless Ones" (1967), featureless aliens known as the Chameleons shapeshift into humans in order to steel their identities. However, they need to keep the copied person alive in order to maintain their stolen identity.[60]
  • In the Doctor Who serial "Terror of the Zygons" (1975), the main antagonists, called the Zygons, can shapeshift into humans and other animals (such as horses). However, they need to keep the copied person or animal alive in order to be able to change back into their natural form.[61]
  • In the Doctor Who serial “Horror of Fang Rock” (1977), the alien species called the Rutans, ancient opponents to the Sontarans, possessed the ability to transform from their natural jellyfish like form to that of one of their human victims.[62]
  • The X-Men comics and films feature Mystique a shapeshifter who can look like any other person.
  • The DC Comics universe features a wide range of shapeshifters, the most prominent being Beast Boy, Plastic Man, Martian Manhunter, Miss Martian, and the Clayfaces.
  • Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991) features a shapeshifting female prisoner who is involved in nearly killing James T. Kirk, but is herself killed.
  • In Thunderheart (1992), starring Val Kilmer, the character Jimmy Looks Twice evades capture by shapeshifting at will into a series of animals.
  • Star Trek: Deep Space Nine features a species known as the Changelings, the race of psionically capable shapeshifters who founded the Dominion.
  • aging process.[63]
  • In
    Anakin
    pursues her and discovers she is a shapeshifter. Zam Wesell reverts to her natural form when her employer assassinates her.
  • American band
    Transmogrification, contains themes around physical and spiritual shapeshifting of the earth as a planet.[64]
  • In Supernatural, the shapeshifters are recurring creatures of the series. Shapeshifter first appeared in Season 1, Episode 6 titled "Skin".
  • In Fringe, shapeshifters are inorganic, human hybrids from the Alternate Universe.
  • In Encanto, Camilo has the ability to shapeshift.
  • In the Animorphs books, an alien species known as the Andalites has shapeshifting or "morphing" technology that is shared with the Animorphs, giving them the power to shapeshift into any living creature they can acquire the DNA of.
  • In the Heroes of Olympus book series, the demigod Frank Zhang possesses the ability to shapeshift as a gift from his ancestor Poseidon.
  • In the graphic novel (and subsequent movie of the same name) Nimona, the titular character is a mischievous shapeshifter.
  • In the Ben 10 franchise (notably Ben Tennyson himself), characters wielding the Omnitrix are able to shapeshift into various alien species.

See also

Notes

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Terri Windling, "Married to Magic: Animal Brides and Bridegrooms in Folklore and Fantasy[usurped]"
  2. ^ Richard M. Dorson, "Foreword", p xxiv, Georgias A. Megas, Folktales of Greece, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1970
  3. ISBN 0-394-73467-X
    .
  4. ^
    ISBN 0-394-73467-X
    .
  5. ISBN 1-58542-206-1
  6. ^ Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans: indigenous education in the eighteenth-century Atlantic world Margaret Szasz 2007 University of Oklahoma Press
  7. ^ a b Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, v 1, pp. 336–7, Dover Publications, New York 1965
  8. ^ Perabo, L. D. 2017. Shapeshifting in Old Norse-Icelandic Literature, Roda da Fortuna. Revista Eletrônica sobre Antiguidade e Medievo, 6(1): 135–158.
  9. ^ Gill, N. S. "Loki – Norse Trickster Loki". about.com. Retrieved 2010-06-18.; Stephan Grundy, "Shapeshifting and Berserkergang," in Translation, Transformation, and Transubstantiation, ed. Carol Poster and Richard Utz (Evanston: IL: Northwestern University Press, 1998), pp. 104–22.
  10. ISSN 2161-2196
    .
  11. ^ Tor Books, 2003
  12. ^ Hatley, Shaman (2007). The Brahmayāmalatantra and Early Śaiva Cult of Yoginīs. University of Pennsylvania (PhD Thesis, UMI Number: 3292099. p. 14.
  13. ^ "Armenian Mythology" by Mardiros H. Ananikiam, in Bullfinch's Mythology
  14. ^ Fansler, Dean s. Filipino Popular Tales.
  15. ^ Heinz Insu Fenkl. "A Fox Woman Tale of Korea". The Endicott Studio. Archived from the original on 2006-11-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  16. ISBN 9785882327261
    .
  17. hdl:2263/12485
    .
  18. ISBN 9780801882210
    .
  19. ^ Gómez Salazar, Catalina Trujillo, Fernando Whitehead, Hal (2011). "Ecological factors influencing group sizes of river dolphins : Inia geoffrensis and Sotalia fluviatilis". Marine Mammal Science. 28 (2): E124–E142.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Bebej, Ryan. "Inia geoffrensis Amazon river dolphin (Also: boto; pink river dolphin)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  21. PMC 2610054.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  22. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4107-5809-5
    .
  23. doi:10.2307/3774086
    .
  24. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00237.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  25. ^ "TNT Folklore". triniview.com. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
  26. ^ "Caribbean History Archives". Gerard A. Besson. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
  27. ^ Aleksandra Kojic (2016-08-18). "Veles – The Slavic Shapeshifting God of Land, Water and Underground". Slavorum. Retrieved 2017-09-08.
  28. ISBN 978-953-6927-41-8. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 2015-10-18.
  29. ^ Joseph Jacobs, English Fairy Tales, "The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh"
  30. ^ Child (1965), pp. 313–314.
  31. ISBN 0-393-05163-3
  32. ^ Brady, Loretta Ellen. The Green Forest Fairy Book. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 1920. pp. 132–169.
  33. ^ Wilson (1976), p. 94.
  34. ISBN 0-374-15901-7
  35. ^ Colbert (2001), pp. 28–29.
  36. ^
    ISBN 0-292-78376-0
  37. ^ Stith Thompson, The Folktale, p. 56, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  38. ^ Stith Thompson, The Folktale, p. 89, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  39. ^ Colbert (2001), p. 23.
  40. ^ a b Grant & Clute, p. 960, "Transformation".
  41. ^ Stith Thompson, The Folktale, pp. 55–56, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  42. ^ Jones (1995), p. 84.
  43. ^ Online text of Ch. VII in The Wonderful Adventures of Nils [1]
  44. ^ Steiger (1999), p. xix.
  45. ^ Tatar (2004), p. 226.
  46. ISBN 0-691-06943-3
  47. ^ Tatar (2004), p. 136.
  48. ISBN 0-691-06943-3
  49. ^ Wilson (1976), p. 89.
  50. ^ Child (1965), p. 306.
  51. ^ Steiger (1999), p. 67.
  52. ISBN 0-691-06722-8
  53. ISBN 0-253-17461-9
  54. ISBN 0-415-92151-1
  55. ^ Steiger (1999), p. 385.
  56. ISBN 0-87054-076-9
  57. ISBN 0-8126-9588-7
  58. ISBN 0-8126-9588-7
  59. ^ Grant & Clute, p. 858, "Shapeshifting".
  60. ^ "Doctor Who The Faceless Ones Blu-ray".
  61. ^ "The Zygon Who Fell to Earth". www.drwhoguide.com.
  62. ^ "Clip: Horror of Fang Rock: Part 4". www.bbc.co.uk.
  63. ISBN 9780316032834
    .
  64. ^ "Transmogrification, by Nahr Alhumam". nahralhumam.bandcamp.com.

Bibliography

Further reading

External links
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