Sheet metal
Sheet metal is metal formed into thin, flat pieces, usually by an industrial process.
Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin sheets are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate, such as plate steel, a class of structural steel.
Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.
In most of the world, sheet metal thickness is consistently specified in millimeters. In the U.S., the thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure known as its
There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as
Sheet metal is used in
History
Hand-hammered metal sheets have been used since ancient times for architectural purposes. Water-powered rolling mills replaced the manual process in the late 17th century. The process of flattening metal sheets required large rotating iron cylinders which pressed metal pieces into sheets. The metals suited for this were lead, copper, zinc, iron and later steel. Tin was often used to coat iron and steel sheets to prevent it from rusting.
Materials
Stainless steel
Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion resistance while maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4. Grade 303 is not available in sheet form.[5]
Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304. It is commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.[5]
Grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly used in cutlery. The only available finish is dull.[5]
Grade 430 is a popular grade, low-cost alternative to series 300's grades. This is used when high corrosion resistance is not a primary criterion. Common grade for appliance products, often with a brushed finish.[citation needed]
Aluminium
Aluminium is widely used in sheet metal form due to its flexibility, wide range of options, cost effectiveness, and other properties.[6] The four most common aluminium grades available as sheet metal are 1100-H14, 3003-H14, 5052-H32, and 6061-T6.[5][7]
Grade 1100-H14 is commercially pure aluminium, highly chemical and weather resistant. It is ductile enough for
Grade 3003-H14 is stronger than 1100, while maintaining the same formability and low cost. It is corrosion resistant and weldable. It is often used in
Grade 5052-H32 is much stronger than 3003 while still maintaining good formability. It maintains high corrosion resistance and weldability. Common applications include electronic chassis, tanks, and pressure vessels.[5]
Grade 6061-T6 is a common heat-treated structural aluminium alloy. It is weldable, corrosion resistant, and stronger than 5052, but not as formable. It loses some of its strength when welded.[5] It is used in modern aircraft structures.[8]
Brass
Brass is an alloy of copper, which is widely used as a sheet metal. It has more strength, corrosion resistance and formability when compared to copper while retaining its conductivity.
In sheet hydroforming, variation in incoming sheet coil properties is a common problem for forming process, especially with materials for automotive applications. Even though incoming sheet coil may meet tensile test specifications, high rejection rate is often observed in production due to inconsistent material behavior. Thus there is a strong need for a discriminating method for testing incoming sheet material formability. The hydraulic sheet bulge test emulates biaxial deformation conditions commonly seen in production operations.
For forming limit curves of materials aluminium, mild steel and brass. Theoretical analysis is carried out by deriving governing equations for determining of equivalent stress and equivalent strain based on the bulging to be spherical and Tresca's yield criterion with the associated flow rule. For experimentation circular grid analysis is one of the most effective methods.[9]
Gauge
This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, it does not explain the difference among the various gauge standards like Manufacturers' Standard Gauge, Standard Decimal Gauge, U.S. Standard Gauge, Birmingham Gage and British Standard Gauge and their appropriate application. (June 2013) |
Use of gauge numbers to designate sheet metal thickness is discouraged by numerous international standards organizations. For example, ASTM states in specification ASTM A480-10a: "The use of gauge number is discouraged as being an archaic term of limited usefulness not having general agreement on meaning."[10]
Manufacturers' Standard Gauge for Sheet Steel is based on an average density of 41.82 lb per square foot per inch thick,[11] equivalent to 501.84 pounds per cubic foot (8,038.7 kg/m3). Gauge is defined differently for ferrous (iron-based) and non-ferrous metals (e.g. aluminium and brass).
The gauge thicknesses shown in column 2 (U.S. standard sheet and plate iron and steel decimal inch (mm)) seem somewhat arbitrary. The progression of thicknesses is clear in column 3 (U.S. standard for sheet and plate iron and steel 64ths inch (delta)). The thicknesses vary first by 1⁄32 inch in higher thicknesses and then step down to increments of 1⁄64 inch, then 1⁄128 inch, with the final increments at decimal fractions of 1⁄64 inch.
Some steel tubes are manufactured by folding a single steel sheet into a square/circle and welding the seam together.[12]Their wall thickness has a similar (but distinct) gauge to the thickness of steel sheets.[13]
Gauge | U.S. standard[15][16] for sheet and plate iron and steel decimal inch (mm) |
U.S. standard[15][16] for sheet and plate iron and steel 64ths inch (delta) |
Manufacturers' Standard Gauge for Sheet Steel[17] inch (mm) |
Galvanized steel inch (mm) |
Stainless steel inch (mm) |
Steel Tube Wall Thickness[13] inch (mm) |
Aluminium inch (mm) |
Zinc[17] inch (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0000000 | 0.5000 (12.70) | 32 (-) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
000000 | 0.4688 (11.91) | 30 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
00000 | 0.4375 (11.11) | 28 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
0000 | 0.4063 (10.32) | 26 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
000 | 0.3750 (9.53) | 24 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
00 | 0.3438 (8.73) | 22 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | 0.380 (9.7) | ...... | ...... |
0 | 0.3125 (7.94) | 20 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | 0.340 (8.6) | ...... | ...... |
1 | 0.2813 (7.15) | 18 (-2) | ...... | ...... | ...... | 0.300 (7.6) | ...... | ...... |
2 | 0.2656 (6.75) | 17 (-1) | ...... | ...... | ...... | 0.284 (7.2) | ...... | ...... |
3 | 0.2500 (6.35) | 16 (-1) | 0.2391 (6.07) | ...... | ...... | 0.259 (6.6) | ...... | 0.006 (0.15) |
4 | 0.2344 (5.95) | 15 (-1) | 0.2242 (5.69) | ...... | ...... | 0.238 (6.0) | ...... | 0.008 (0.20) |
5 | 0.2188 (5.56) | 14 (-1) | 0.2092 (5.31) | ...... | ...... | 0.220 (5.6) | ...... | 0.010 (0.25) |
6 | 0.2031 (5.16) | 13 (-1) | 0.1943 (4.94) | ...... | ...... | 0.203 (5.2) | 0.162 (4.1) | 0.012 (0.30) |
7 | 0.1875 (4.76) | 12 (-1) | 0.1793 (4.55) | ...... | 0.1875 (4.76) | 0.180 (4.6) | 0.1443 (3.67) | 0.014 (0.36) |
8 | 0.1719 (4.37) | 11 (-1) | 0.1644 (4.18) | 0.1681 (4.27) | 0.1719 (4.37) | 0.165 (4.2) | 0.1285 (3.26) | 0.016 (0.41) |
9 | 0.1563 (3.97) | 10 (-1) | 0.1495 (3.80) | 0.1532 (3.89) | 0.1563 (3.97) | 0.148 (3.8) | 0.1144 (2.91) | 0.018 (0.46) |
10 | 0.1406 (3.57) | 9 (-1) | 0.1345 (3.42) | 0.1382 (3.51) | 0.1406 (3.57) | 0.134 (3.4) | 0.1019 (2.59) | 0.020 (0.51) |
11 | 0.1250 (3.18) | 8 (-1) | 0.1196 (3.04) | 0.1233 (3.13) | 0.1250 (3.18) | 0.120 (3.0) | 0.0907 (2.30) | 0.024 (0.61) |
12 | 0.1094 (2.78) | 7 (-1) | 0.1046 (2.66) | 0.1084 (2.75) | 0.1094 (2.78) | 0.109 (2.8) | 0.0808 (2.05) | 0.028 (0.71) |
13 | 0.0938 (2.38) | 6 (-1) | 0.0897 (2.28) | 0.0934 (2.37) | 0.094 (2.4) | 0.095 (2.4) | 0.072 (1.8) | 0.032 (0.81) |
14 | 0.0781 (1.98) | 5 (-1) | 0.0747 (1.90) | 0.0785 (1.99) | 0.0781 (1.98) | 0.083 (2.1) | 0.063 (1.6) | 0.036 (0.91) |
15 | 0.0703 (1.79) | 4.5 (-0.5) | 0.0673 (1.71) | 0.0710 (1.80) | 0.07 (1.8) | 0.072 (1.8) | 0.057 (1.4) | 0.040 (1.0) |
16 | 0.0625 (1.59) | 4.0 (-0.5) | 0.0598 (1.52) | 0.0635 (1.61) | 0.0625 (1.59) | 0.065 (1.7) | 0.0508 (1.29) | 0.045 (1.1) |
17 | 0.0563 (1.43) | 3.6 (-0.4) | 0.0538 (1.37) | 0.0575 (1.46) | 0.056 (1.4) | 0.058 (1.5) | 0.045 (1.1) | 0.050 (1.3) |
18 | 0.0500 (1.27) | 3.2 (-0.4) | 0.0478 (1.21) | 0.0516 (1.31) | 0.0500 (1.27) | 0.049 (1.2) | 0.0403 (1.02) | 0.055 (1.4) |
19 | 0.0438 (1.11) | 2.8 (-0.4) | 0.0418 (1.06) | 0.0456 (1.16) | 0.044 (1.1) | 0.042 (1.1) | 0.036 (0.91) | 0.060 (1.5) |
20 | 0.0375 (0.95) | 2.4 (-0.4) | 0.0359 (0.91) | 0.0396 (1.01) | 0.0375 (0.95) | 0.035 (0.89) | 0.0320 (0.81) | 0.070 (1.8) |
21 | 0.0344 (0.87) | 2.2 (-0.2) | 0.0329 (0.84) | 0.0366 (0.93) | 0.034 (0.86) | 0.032 (0.81) | 0.028 (0.71) | 0.080 (2.0) |
22 | 0.0313 (0.80) | 2.0 (-0.2) | 0.0299 (0.76) | 0.0336 (0.85) | 0.031 (0.79) | 0.028 (0.71) | 0.025 (0.64) | 0.090 (2.3) |
23 | 0.0281 (0.71) | 1.8 (-0.2) | 0.0269 (0.68) | 0.0306 (0.78) | 0.028 (0.71) | 0.025 (0.64) | 0.023 (0.58) | 0.100 (2.5) |
24 | 0.0250 (0.64) | 1.6 (-0.2) | 0.0239 (0.61) | 0.0276 (0.70) | 0.025 (0.64) | 0.022 (0.56) | 0.02 (0.51) | 0.125 (3.2) |
25 | 0.0219 (0.56) | 1.4 (-0.2) | 0.0209 (0.53) | 0.0247 (0.63) | 0.022 (0.56) | ...... | 0.018 (0.46) | ...... |
26 | 0.0188 (0.48) | 1.2 (-0.2) | 0.0179 (0.45) | 0.0217 (0.55) | 0.019 (0.48) | ...... | 0.017 (0.43) | ...... |
27 | 0.0172 (0.44) | 1.1 (-0.1) | 0.0164 (0.42) | 0.0202 (0.51) | 0.017 (0.43) | ...... | 0.014 (0.36) | ...... |
28 | 0.0156 (0.40) | 1.0 (-0.1) | 0.0149 (0.38) | 0.0187 (0.47) | 0.016 (0.41) | ...... | 0.0126 (0.32) | ...... |
29 | 0.0141 (0.36) | 0.9 (-0.1) | 0.0135 (0.34) | 0.0172 (0.44) | 0.014 (0.36) | ...... | 0.0113 (0.29) | ...... |
30 | 0.0125 (0.32) | 0.8 (-0.1) | 0.0120 (0.30) | 0.0157 (0.40) | 0.013 (0.33) | ...... | 0.0100 (0.25) | ...... |
31 | 0.0109 (0.28) | 0.7 (-0.1) | 0.0105 (0.27) | 0.0142 (0.36) | 0.011 (0.28) | ...... | 0.0089 (0.23) | ...... |
32 | 0.0102 (0.26) | 0.65 (-0.05) | 0.0097 (0.25) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
33 | 0.0094 (0.24) | 0.60 (-0.05) | 0.0090 (0.23) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
34 | 0.0086 (0.22) | 0.55 (-0.05) | 0.0082 (0.21) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
35 | 0.0078 (0.20) | 0.50 (-0.05) | 0.0075 (0.19) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
36 | 0.0070 (0.18) | 0.45 (-0.05) | 0.0067 (0.17) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
37 | 0.0066 (0.17) | 0.425 (-0.025) | 0.0064 (0.16) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
38 | 0.0063 (0.16) | 0.400 (-0.025) | 0.0060 (0.15) | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... | ...... |
Tolerances
During the rolling process the rollers bow slightly, which results in the sheets being thinner on the edges.[5] The tolerances in the table and attachments reflect current manufacturing practices and commercial standards and are not representative of the Manufacturer's Standard Gauge, which has no inherent tolerances.
Gauge | Nominal [in (mm)] |
Max [in (mm)] |
Min [in (mm)] |
---|---|---|---|
10 | 0.1345 (3.42) | 0.1405 (3.57) | 0.1285 (3.26) |
11 | 0.1196 (3.04) | 0.1256 (3.19) | 0.1136 (2.89) |
12 | 0.1046 (2.66) | 0.1106 (2.81) | 0.0986 (2.50) |
14 | 0.0747 (1.90) | 0.0797 (2.02) | 0.0697 (1.77) |
16 | 0.0598 (1.52) | 0.0648 (1.65) | 0.0548 (1.39) |
18 | 0.0478 (1.21) | 0.0518 (1.32) | 0.0438 (1.11) |
20 | 0.0359 (0.91) | 0.0389 (0.99) | 0.0329 (0.84) |
22 | 0.0299 (0.76) | 0.0329 (0.84) | 0.0269 (0.68) |
24 | 0.0239 (0.61) | 0.0269 (0.68) | 0.0209 (0.53) |
26 | 0.0179 (0.45) | 0.0199 (0.51) | 0.0159 (0.40) |
28 | 0.0149 (0.38) | 0.0169 (0.43) | 0.0129 (0.33) |
Thickness [in (mm)] |
Sheet width | |
---|---|---|
36 (914.4) [in (mm)] |
48 (1,219) [in (mm)] | |
0.018–0.028 (0.46–0.71) | 0.002 (0.051) | 0.0025 (0.064) |
0.029–0.036 (0.74–0.91) | 0.002 (0.051) | 0.0025 (0.064) |
0.037–0.045 (0.94–1.14) | 0.0025 (0.064) | 0.003 (0.076) |
0.046–0.068 (1.2–1.7) | 0.003 (0.076) | 0.004 (0.10) |
0.069–0.076 (1.8–1.9) | 0.003 (0.076) | 0.004 (0.10) |
0.077–0.096 (2.0–2.4) | 0.0035 (0.089) | 0.004 (0.10) |
0.097–0.108 (2.5–2.7) | 0.004 (0.10) | 0.005 (0.13) |
0.109–0.125 (2.8–3.2) | 0.0045 (0.11) | 0.005 (0.13) |
0.126–0.140 (3.2–3.6) | 0.0045 (0.11) | 0.005 (0.13) |
0.141–0.172 (3.6–4.4) | 0.006 (0.15) | 0.008 (0.20) |
0.173–0.203 (4.4–5.2) | 0.007 (0.18) | 0.010 (0.25) |
0.204–0.249 (5.2–6.3) | 0.009 (0.23) | 0.011 (0.28) |
Thickness [in (mm)] |
Sheet width | |
---|---|---|
36 (914.4) [in (mm)] |
48 (1,219) [in (mm)] | |
0.017–0.030 (0.43–0.76) | 0.0015 (0.038) | 0.002 (0.051) |
0.031–0.041 (0.79–1.04) | 0.002 (0.051) | 0.003 (0.076) |
0.042–0.059 (1.1–1.5) | 0.003 (0.076) | 0.004 (0.10) |
0.060–0.073 (1.5–1.9) | 0.003 (0.076) | 0.0045 (0.11) |
0.074–0.084 (1.9–2.1) | 0.004 (0.10) | 0.0055 (0.14) |
0.085–0.099 (2.2–2.5) | 0.004 (0.10) | 0.006 (0.15) |
0.100–0.115 (2.5–2.9) | 0.005 (0.13) | 0.007 (0.18) |
0.116–0.131 (2.9–3.3) | 0.005 (0.13) | 0.0075 (0.19) |
0.132–0.146 (3.4–3.7) | 0.006 (0.15) | 0.009 (0.23) |
0.147–0.187 (3.7–4.7) | 0.007 (0.18) | 0.0105 (0.27) |
Forming processes
Bending
The equation for estimating the maximum bending force is,
,
where k is a factor taking into account several parameters including friction. T is the ultimate tensile strength of the metal. L and t are the length and thickness of the sheet metal, respectively. The variable W is the open width of a V-die or wiping die.
Curling
The curling process is used to form an edge on a ring. This process is used to remove sharp edges. It also increases the moment of inertia near the curled end. The flare/burr should be turned away from the die. It is used to curl a material of specific thickness. Tool steel is generally used due to the amount of wear done by operation.
Decambering
It is a metal working process of removing camber, the horizontal bend, from a strip shaped material. It may be done to a finite length section or coils. It resembles flattening of leveling process, but on a deformed edge.
Deep drawing
Drawing is a forming process in which the metal is stretched over a form or die.[19] In deep drawing the depth of the part being made is more than half its diameter. Deep drawing is used for making automotive fuel tanks, kitchen sinks, two-piece aluminum cans, etc. Deep drawing is generally done in multiple steps called draw reductions. The greater the depth, the more reductions are required. Deep drawing may also be accomplished with fewer reductions by heating the workpiece, for example in sink manufacture.
In many cases, material is rolled at the mill in both directions to aid in deep drawing. This leads to a more uniform grain structure which limits tearing and is referred to as "draw quality" material.
Expanding
Expanding is a process of cutting or stamping slits in alternating pattern much like the stretcher bond in brickwork and then stretching the sheet open in accordion-like fashion. It is used in applications where air and water flow are desired as well as when light weight is desired at cost of a solid flat surface. A similar process is used in other materials such as paper to create a low cost packing paper with better supportive properties than flat paper alone.
Hemming and seaming
Hemming is a process of folding the edge of sheet metal onto itself to reinforce that edge. Seaming is a process of folding two sheets of metal together to form a joint.
Hydroforming
Hydroforming is a process that is analogous to deep drawing, in that the part is formed by stretching the
Incremental sheet forming
Incremental sheet forming or ISF forming process is basically sheet metal working or sheet metal forming process. In this case, sheet is formed into final shape by a series of processes in which small incremental deformation can be done in each series.
Ironing
Ironing is a sheet metal working or sheet metal forming process. It uniformly thins the workpiece in a specific area. This is a very useful process. It is used to produce a uniform wall thickness part with a high height-to-diameter ratio. It is used in making aluminium beverage cans.
Laser cutting
Sheet metal can be cut in various ways, from hand tools called
CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen, nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet.
Photochemical machining
Photochemical machining, also known as photo etching, is a tightly controlled corrosion process which is used to produce complex metal parts from sheet metal with very fine detail. The photo etching process involves photo sensitive polymer being applied to a raw metal sheet. Using CAD designed photo-tools as stencils, the metal is exposed to UV light to leave a design pattern, which is developed and etched from the metal sheet.
Perforating
Perforating is a cutting process that punches multiple small holes close together in a flat workpiece. Perforated sheet metal is used to make a wide variety of surface cutting tools, such as the surform.
Press brake forming
This is a form of
The press usually has some sort of
Punching
Punching is performed by placing the sheet of metal stock between a punch and a die mounted in a press. The punch and die are made of hardened steel and are the same shape. The punch is sized to be a very close fit in the die. The press pushes the punch against and into the die with enough force to cut a hole in the stock. In some cases the punch and die "nest" together to create a depression in the stock. In progressive stamping, a coil of stock is fed into a long die/punch set with many stages. Multiple simple shaped holes may be produced in one stage, but complex holes are created in multiple stages. In the final stage, the part is punched free from the "web".
A typical CNC turret punch has a choice of up to 60 tools in a "turret" that can be rotated to bring any tool to the punching position. A simple shape (e.g. a square, circle, or hexagon) is cut directly from the sheet. A complex shape can be cut out by making many square or rounded cuts around the perimeter. A punch is less flexible than a laser for cutting compound shapes, but faster for repetitive shapes (for example, the grille of an air-conditioning unit). A CNC punch can achieve 600 strokes per minute.
A typical component (such as the side of a computer case) can be cut to high precision from a blank sheet in under 15 seconds by either a press or a laser CNC machine.
Roll forming
A continuous bending operation for producing open profiles or welded tubes with long lengths or in large quantities.
Rolling
Rolling is metal working or metal forming process. In this method, stock passes through one or more pair of rolls to reduce thickness. It is used to make thickness uniform. It is classified according to its temperature of rolling:[22]
- Hot rolling: in this temperature is above recrystallisation temperature.
- Cold rolling: In this temperature is below recrystallisation temperature.
- Warm rolling: In this temperature is used is in between Hot rolling and cold rolling.
Spinning
Spinning is used to make tubular (axis-symmetric) parts by fixing a piece of sheet stock to a rotating form (mandrel). Rollers or rigid tools press the stock against the form, stretching it until the stock takes the shape of the form. Spinning is used to make rocket motor casings, missile nose cones, satellite dishes and metal kitchen funnels.
Stamping
Stamping includes a variety of operations such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes can be formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs are low.
Alternatively, the related techniques repoussé and chasing have low tooling and equipment costs, but high labor costs.
Water jet cutting
A water jet cutter, also known as a waterjet, is a tool capable of a controlled erosion into metal or other materials using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a mixture of water and an abrasive substance.
Wheeling
The process of using an English wheel is called wheeling. It is basically a metal working or metal forming process. An English wheel is used by a craftsperson to form compound curves from a flat sheet of metal of aluminium or steel. It is costly, as highly skilled labour is required. It can produce different panels by the same method. A stamping press is used for high numbers in production.[23]
Sheet metal fabrication
The use of sheet metal, through a comprehensive cold working process, including bending, shearing, punching, laser cutting, water jet cutting, riveting, splicing, etc. to make the final product we want (such as computer chassis, washing machine shells, refrigerator door panels, etc.), we generally called sheet metal fabrication. The academic community currently has no uniform definition, but this process has a common feature of the process is that the material is generally a thin sheet, and will not change the thickness of most of the material of the part.
Fasteners
Fasteners that are commonly used on sheet metal include:
See also
- Circle grid analysis
- Corrugated galvanised iron, also known as Corrugated Sheet Metal
- Diamond plate
- Forming limit diagram
- Strip steel
- Temper mill
References
- ^ "Design Guide: Sheet Metal Fabrication" (PDF). xometry.com.
- ISBN 9780252019630. Archivedfrom the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-62190-157-0.
- ^ Staveteig, Kaaren R. "Historic Decorative Metal Ceilings and Walls: Use, Repair, and Replacement" (PDF). Preservation Briefs (49): 1–3. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Sheet metal material". precisionsheetmetal.com. Archived from the original on 2009-06-15.
- ^ "Sustainability of Aluminium in Buildings" (PDF). European Aluminium Association. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
- ^ Central Steel & Wire Company Catalog (2006–2008 ed.), p. 151
- ^ All Metal Construction Made Easy Archived 2012-02-18 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Baptiste, R., Clark, D.L. and Matin, P., 2017, June. Designing a Strain Measurement System based on Circle Grid Analysis for Sheet Metal Forming Applications. In 2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition. p.3
- ^ "ASTM A480/A480M-13b Standard Specification for General Requirements for Flat-Rolled Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip". ASTM International. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22.
- ^ Oberg, p. 2522.
- ^ "How Is Steel Tubing Made?". Sciencing. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
- ^ a b "Tube Sizing Chart". Tech Steel & Materials. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
- ^ Rowlett, Ross (26 July 2002). "Sheet Metal Thickness Gauges". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ a b Oberg, p. 387.
- ^ a b : Standard gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel
- ^ a b Oberg, p. 2502.
- ^ "ASTM-AISI Thickness Tolerance Ranges" (PDF). CoyoteSteel.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
- ^ Parker, pp. 20, 85
- ISSN 1526-6125.
- ^ Parker, pp. 29, 83
- ^ Parker, p. 115
- ^ Parker, p. 89
- ^ Parker, p. 70
- ^ Parker, pp. 17, 22, 29–30, 117
Bibliography
- Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D. (2004). ISBN 0-8311-2700-7.
- Parker (2013). Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II. Cypress, CA. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
External links
- "Manufacturers Standard Gauge History". Steel Market Update. Archived from the original on 2013-09-28. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
- "Sheet Steel Gauges and Thicknesses" (PDF). Sheet Steel Facts. Sachiya Steel International. September 2023.
- Milestones in the History of Sheet Metal