Shuanggudui
双古堆 | |
Location | Anhui, China |
---|---|
Coordinates | 32°54′N 115°48′E / 32.9°N 115.8°E |
Type | tombs |
History | |
Periods | Han dynasty |
Events | Sealed 165 BCE |
Shuanggudui (
Excavation and identification
Shuanggudui (双古堆, literally "paired ancient tumuli") was excavated in July 1977 during the expansion of the Fuyang municipal airport in Anhui province, China.[1] Located about two miles outside Fuyang at the time, the site was known to contain old tombs, yet it is unclear whether the excavation was pre-planned or rushed just as construction started.[2] The digging was supervised by two archeologists from the Anhui Provincial Archaeological Relics Find Team, who discovered two tombs, one of which (Tomb 1, to the east) was found to contain texts and artifacts.[1] A ramp 4.1 metres (13 ft) wide led to a coffin chamber measuring 9.2 metres (30 ft) north-south by 7.65 metres (25.1 ft) east-west, about half the area of the more famous Tomb 3 that had been discovered in Mawangdui in 1973.[3]
Some of the bronze artifacts found in Tomb 1 were marked with the name of the tomb's occupant Ruyin Hou (女[汝]陰侯), which means "Lord of Ruyin".
Artifacts
Cosmic boards
The Shuanggudui tomb contained the earliest known diviner's boards (shi 式), or "cosmographs",
The use of such boards is described or alluded to in many ancient Chinese texts like the
Numeral juxtaposition on the inner, round part of the board correlates to the
Other objects
The most valuable goods that were buried with the tomb's occupant had long been robbed when archeologists excavated the tomb in 1977. In addition to the two cosmic boards, many lacquered vessels were nonetheless found, as well as
Texts
Bamboo strips
Robbers who looted the tomb in the late second century CE took the bamboo strips out of the lacquered bamboo hamper in which they had been placed and left the strips on the ground of the coffin chamber.[15] The chamber itself later collapsed, breaking the strips, and muddy water covered the strips, eventually turning them into "paper-thin sheets, fused together into clumps by ground pressure."[15] The largest of the three clumps was about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) long by 10 centimetres (3.9 in) wide and 10 centimetres (3.9 in) high.[5] To complicate matters, the 1977 excavation took place under a heavy rainstorm, and the pump that the excavators used to remove mud from the coffin chamber also pumped out other fragments of bamboo strips.[5]
It took a team led by Han Ziqiang (韩自强) of the Fuyang Local Museum and Yu Haoliang (于豪亮; 1917–1982) of the
After Yu Haoliang's death in 1982, Hu Pingsheng (胡平生) replaced him at the head of the team.[5] It is Hu and Han Ziqiang who edited the texts for publication.[16]
Classic of Changes
The longest text found in Shuanggudui is an incomplete version of the
Nearly two thirds of this Shuanggudui Yijing consist in "formulaic divination statements" that are present neither in the received Yijing, nor in the version that was found in Mawangdui that was also sealed in the 160s BCE.[19] Edward Shaughnessy has hypothesized that the line statements of the received Book of Changes may have originated in similar but older divination statements.[20]
Classic of Poetry
More than 170 fragments of the Classic of Poetry or Book of Odes, for a total of 820 characters, have also been found in Shuanggudui.[21] These fragments are longer and have been more extensively studied than other incomplete versions of the Shijing found in ancient tombs like those of Guodian (tomb sealed around 300 BCE) and Mawangdui (168 BCE).[22]
The Shuanggudui version contains portions of 65 songs from the "Airs of States" (Guofeng 國風) section and 4 from the "Xiaoya" 小雅 section.[23] Although the song titles are the same as those of the received version, the text varies substantially from that of the other early Han versions.[23] Since each strip contained one stanza (zhang 章), characters were written smaller when a long stanza had to fit on a single strip.[24]
Cangjiepian
Named after the
Wanwu
The text that Chinese editors have titled "Myriad Things" or "Ten Thousand Things" (Wanwu 萬物) is an extensive list of natural substances that historians of Chinese medicine see as a precursor of later
Historical annals
The most fragmentary and badly damaged of the texts found in Shuanggudui is a text that the Chinese editors have called "Table" (biao 表), an
Breathing exercises
An incomplete text dealing with breathing exercises was also excavated in Shuanggudui.
Manual on dogs
The tomb also contained a Classic for Physiognomizing Dogs (Xiang Gou Jing 相狗經), "a text for assessing the qualities of dogs."
Other fragments
Fragments of the following texts were also found in the tomb:
- Eight bamboo strips bearing 56 characters from the "Miscellaneous Chapters" (Zapian 雜篇) of the Zhuangzi.[40]
- A handbook for government officials that the modern editors have named Zuowu Yuancheng 作務員程, or Per Capita Rate for Work Duties.[1] This manual gives the "standard rates of work for different tasks to be carried out by farmers and artisans".[41]
- Yinqueshan.[42]
- Ninety-six strips bearing a text resembling the Chunqiu Shiyu 春秋事語 (Stories and Sayings of the Spring and Autumn) excavated in Mawangdui.[1]
- Three "wooden boards" (du 牘) each bearing the table of contents of one book. One is the Chunqiu Shiyu (see previous entry), and the most complete one is called Rujiazhe Yan 儒家者言 (Sayings of the Ru School), close in content to the Kongzi Jiayu 孔子家語 (School Sayings of Confucius), which has been transmitted to the present.[1]
See also
- Chu Silk Manuscript
- Fangmatan
- Guodian Chu Slips
- Mawangdui Silk Texts
- Shuihudi Qin bamboo texts
- Tsinghua Slips
- Yinqueshan Han Slips
- Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g Shaughnessy 2014, p. 190.
- ^ a b Shaughnessy 2014, pp. 190–91.
- ^ Shaughnessy 2014, pp. 189–90.
- ^ Greatrex 1994, p. 98; Shaughnessy 2014, p. 191.
- ^ a b c d Shaughnessy 2014, p. 191.
- ^ Lewis 2006, p. 275 (earliest); Dorofeeva-Lichtmann 2007, p. 294 ("cosmograph"); Tseng 2011, p. 47 (widely used); Shaughnessy 2014, pp. 190–91 ("two well-preserved diviner's boards"). A drawing of one of these boards first published in the Chinese journal Kaogu ("Archeology") in 1978, is reproduced in Harper 1999, p. 840; Dorofeeva-Lichtmann 2007, p. 294; and Tseng 2011, p. 49.
- ^ Harper 1999, p. 839 ("astrological instrument" and description); Tseng 2011, pp. 47 (lacquered) and 49 (measurements).
- ^ Harper 1999, pp. 839 (on help for divination) and 841 (on Northern Dipper as deity); Tseng 2011, p. 47 (description of artifact).
- ^ Harper 1978–1979, p. 1.
- ^ Harper 1999, pp. 841–43.
- ^ Harper 1999, p. 839; Tseng 2011, pp. 47–49.
- ^ Harper 1999, p. 839.
- ^ Lewis 2006, p. 278.
- ^ Kalinowski 2013, pp. 340–341.
- ^ a b Shaughnessy 2001, p. 8.
- ^ a b c d Shaughnessy 2014, p. 192.
- ^ Shaughnessy 2001, pp. 9 ("largest single text among the Fuyang strips", 752 fragments) and 10 (3, 119 characters).
- ^ Shaughnessy 2001, pp. 10 (too fragmentary, no info on sequence) and 12 (close to received text).
- ^ Shaughnessy 2001, pp. 9 ("formulaic divination statements", comparison with Mawangdui Yijing) and 10 (2, 009 out of 3, 119 characters are divination statements).
- ^ Shaughnessy 2001, p. 18 and note.
- ^ Kern 2005, pp. 152 (number of fragments) and 156 (number of characters).
- ^ Kern 2005, p. 150.
- ^ a b Kern 2005, p. 152.
- ^ Kern 2005, p. 153.
- ^ Wilkinson 2000, p. 794; Hayhoe 1992, p. 28.
- ^ Hayhoe 1992, p. 28 (Li Si, language policies); Greatrex 1994, p. 101 (Cang Jie Pian composed of three works, including Li Si's shorter Cang Jie).
- ^ Sabban 2000, p. 807 (number of characters); Greatrex 1994, p. 104 ("nearly twenty percent of the original book").
- ^ Wilkinson 2000, p. 49, note 38 (location of the other finds); Greatrex 1994, p. 104 ("this is the largest and most legible discovery").
- ^ Greatrex 1994, p. 104.
- ^ Harper 1998, p. 34; Unschuld & Zheng 2005, p. 21.
- ^ Hsu 2010, p. 24.
- ^ a b Sterckx 2002, p. 27.
- ^ Harper 1998, p. 33.
- ^ a b Harper 1998, p. 34.
- ^ Hu 1989, pp. 1–6; Vankeerberghen 2007, p. 297. An illustration of the 32 fragments can be found in Hu 1989, pp. 24–25, and in Dorofeeva-Lichtmann 2004, p. 16.
- ^ Vankeerberghen 2007, p. 298.
- ^ Vankeerberghen 2007, p. 299.
- ^ a b Graziani 2009, p. 465.
- ^ Shaughnessy 2001, p. 27.
- ^ Shaughnessy 2014, p. 311, note 6.
- ^ Greatrex 1994, p. 100.
- ^ Shaughnessy 2014, p. 189.
Bibliography
Works cited
- Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, Vera (2004), "Spatial Organization of Ancient Chinese Texts (Preliminary Remarks)", in ISBN 1-4020-2320-0.
- ——— (2007), "Mapless Mapping: Did the Maps of the Shan hai jing Ever Exist?", in Francesca Bray; Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtmann; Georges Métailié (eds.), Graphics and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China: The Warp and the Weft, Leiden and Boston: E.J. Brill, pp. 217–94, ISBN 978-90-04-16063-7.
- Graziani, Romain (2009), "The subject and the sovereign: exploring the self in early Chinese self-cultivation", in John Lagerwey; Mark Kalinowski (eds.), Early Chinese Religion. Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD), Leiden: Brill, pp. 459–518, ISBN 978-90-04-16835-0.
- Greatrex, Roger (1994), "An Early Western Han Synonymicon: The Fuyang Copy of the Cang Jie pian", in Joakim Enwall (ed.), Outstretched Leaves on His Bamboo Staff: Essays in Honour of Göran Malmqvist on his 70th Birthday, Stockholm: Association of Oriental Studies, pp. 97–113, ISBN 91-970854-3-X.
- Harper, Donald (1978–1979), "The Han Cosmic Board (shih 式)", Early China, 4: 1–10, (subscription required)
- ——— (1998), Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts, London and New York: Kegan Paul International, ISBN 0-7103-0582-6.
- ——— (1999), "Warring States Natural Philosophy and Occult Thought", in Michael Loewe; Edward L. Shaughnessy (eds.), The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 813–84, ISBN 0-521-47030-7.
- Hayhoe, Ruth (1992), Education and Modernization: The Chinese Experience, Oxford and New York: ISBN 0-08-037411-5.
- Hsu, Elisabeth (2010), Pulse Diagnosis in Early Chinese Medicine: The Telling Touch, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51662-4.
- Hu, Pingsheng 胡平生 (1989), "Some Notes on the Organization of the Han Dynasty Bamboo 'Annals' Found at Fuyang", Early China, 14, translated by Deborah Porter: 1–25, (subscription required)
- Kalinowski, Marc (2013), "The Notion of "Shi" 式 and Some Related Terms in Qin-Han Calendrical Astrology", Early China, 35: 331–360, .
- Kern, Martin (2005), "The Odes in Excavated Manuscripts", in Martin Kern (ed.), Text and Ritual in Early China, Seattle: University of Washington Press, pp. 149–93, ISBN 978-0-295-98787-3.
- ISBN 0-7914-6608-6.
- Sabban, Françoise (2000), "Quand la forme transcende l'objet. Histoire des pâtes alimentaires en Chine (IIIe siècle av. J.-C.–IIIe siècle apr. J.-C.)" [When the form transcends the thing: history of pasta in China, 3rd century BC – 3rd century AD], Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 55 (4): 791–824, .
- Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2001), "The Fuyang Zhou Yi and the Making of a Divination Manual" (PDF), Asia Major, Third Series, 14 (1): 7–18.
- ——— (2014), Unearthing the Changes: Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the Yi Jing (I Ching) and Related Texts, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-16184-8.
- ISBN 0-7914-5270-0.
- Tseng, Lillian Lan-ying (2011), Picturing Heaven in Early China, Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London: Harvard University Asia Center, distributed by Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-06069-2.
- Unschuld, Paul U.; Zheng, Jinsheng (2005), "Manuscripts as sources in the history of Chinese medicine (translated from German by Mitch Cohen)", in Vivienne Lo; Christopher Cullen (eds.), Medieval Chinese Medicine: The Dunhuang medical manuscripts, New York: RoutledgeCurzon, pp. 19–44, ISBN 0-415-34295-3.
- Vankeerberghen, Griet (2007), "The Tables (biao) in Sima Qian's Shi ji: Rhetoric and Remembrance", in Francesca Bray; Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtmann; Georges Métailié (eds.), Graphics and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China: The Warp and the Weft, Leiden and Boston: E. J. Brill, pp. 295–311, ISBN 978-90-04-16063-7.
- ISBN 0-674-00247-4.
Further reading
- Fuyang Han jian zhenglizu 阜阳汉简整理组, [Organizing group for the Han-dynasty bamboo slips from Fuyang] (1983), "Fuyang Han jian Cang Jie Pian 阜阳汉简《仓颉篇》" [The Cang Jie Pian in the Han-dynasty bamboo slips from Fuyang], Wenwu 文物, 1983 (2): 24–34.
- ——— (1984), "Fuyang Han jian Shijing 阜阳汉简《诗经》" [The Classic of Poetry in the Han-dynasty bamboo slips from Fuyang], Wenwu 文物, 1984 (8): 1–12.
- ——— (1988), "Fuyang Han jian Wan Wu 阜阳汉简《万物》" [Wan Wu in the Han-dynasty bamboo slips from Fuyang], Wenwu 文物, 1988 (4): 36–54.
- Xing, Wen 邢文 (2003), "Hexagram Pictures and Early Yi Schools: Reconsidering the Book of Changes in Light of Excavated Yi Texts", Monumenta Serica: Journal of Oriental Studies, 51: 571–604, (subscription required)