Shunzhi Emperor
Shunzhi Emperor 順治帝 | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Emperor of the Qing dynasty | |||||||||||||||||
Reign | 8 October 1643 – 5 February 1661 | ||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | Hong Taiji | ||||||||||||||||
Successor | Kangxi Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
Regents | Dorgon (1643–1650) Jirgalang (1643–1647) | ||||||||||||||||
Emperor of China | |||||||||||||||||
Reign | 1644–1661 | ||||||||||||||||
Predecessor | Chongzhen Emperor (Ming dynasty) | ||||||||||||||||
Successor | Kangxi Emperor | ||||||||||||||||
Born | (崇德三年 正月 三十日) Yongfu Palace, Mukden Palace | 15 March 1638||||||||||||||||
Died | 5 February 1661 (順治十八年 正月 七日) Hall of Mental Cultivation | (aged 22)||||||||||||||||
Burial | Xiao Mausoleum, Eastern Qing tombs | ||||||||||||||||
Consorts | |||||||||||||||||
Changning, Prince Gong of the First Rank Longxi, Prince Chunjing of the First Rank Princess Gongque of the Second Rank | |||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||
House | Aisin Gioro | ||||||||||||||||
Dynasty | Qing | ||||||||||||||||
Father | Hong Taiji | ||||||||||||||||
Mother | Empress Xiaozhuangwen |
Shunzhi Emperor | |
---|---|
Hanyu Pinyin | Shùnzhì Dì |
Wade–Giles | Shun4-chih4 Ti4 |
IPA | [ʂwə̂n.ʈʂɻ̩̂ tî] |
Yue: Cantonese | |
Yale Romanization | Seuhnjih Dai |
Jyutping | Seon6-zi6 Dai3 |
IPA | [sɵn˨.tsiː˨ tɐi˧] |
Southern Min | |
Hokkien POJ | Sūn-tī Tè |
The Shunzhi Emperor (Fulin; 15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661) was the second
From 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of Dorgon. Under his leadership, the Qing Empire conquered most of the territory of the fallen
"Shunzhi" was the name of this ruler's
Historical background
In the 1580s, when China was ruled by the
Nurhaci's son and successor
Becoming emperor
When Hong Taiji died on 21 September 1643 without having named a successor, the fledgling Qing state faced a possibly serious crisis.[15] Several contenders—namely Nurhaci's second and eldest surviving son Daišan, Nurhaci's fourteenth and fifteenth sons Dorgon and Dodo (both born to the same mother), and Hong Taiji's eldest son Hooge—started to vie for the throne.[16] With his brothers Dodo and Ajige, Dorgon (31 years old) controlled the Plain and Bordered White Banners, Daišan (60) was in charge of the two Red Banners, whereas Hooge (34) had the loyalty of his father's two Yellow Banners.[17]
The decision about who would become the new Qing emperor fell to the
Dorgon's regency (1643–1650)
A quasi emperor
On 17 February 1644, Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but looked uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded control of all official matters to Dorgon.[22] After an alleged plot by Hooge to undermine the regency was exposed on 6 May of that year, Hooge was stripped of his title of Imperial Prince and his co-conspirators were executed.[23] Dorgon soon replaced Hooge's supporters (mostly from the Yellow Banners) with his own, thus gaining closer control of two more Banners.[24] By early June 1644, he was in firm control of the Qing government and its military.[25]
In early 1644, just as Dorgon and his advisors were pondering how to attack the
Settling in the capital
After six weeks of mistreatment at the hands of rebel troops, the Beijing population sent a party of elders and officials to greet their liberators on 5 June.[33] They were startled when, instead of meeting Wu Sangui and the Ming heir apparent, they saw Dorgon, a horseriding Manchu with his shaved forehead, present himself as the Prince Regent.[34] In the midst of this upheaval, Dorgon installed himself in the Wuying Palace (武英殿), the only building that remained more or less intact after Li Zicheng had set fire to the palace complex on 3 June.[35] Banner troops were ordered not to loot; their discipline made the transition to Qing rule "remarkably smooth."[36] Yet at the same time as he claimed to have come to avenge the Ming, Dorgon ordered that all claimants to the Ming throne (including descendants of the last Ming emperor) should be executed along with their supporters.[37]
On 7 June, just two days after entering the city, Dorgon issued special proclamations to officials around the capital, assuring them that if the local population accepted to shave their forehead, wear a queue, and surrender, the officials would be allowed to stay at their post.[38] He had to repeal this command three weeks later after several peasant rebellions erupted around Beijing, threatening Qing control over the capital region.[39]
Dorgon greeted the Shunzhi Emperor at the gates of Beijing on 19 October 1644.[40] On 30 October the six-year-old monarch performed sacrifices to Heaven and Earth at the Altar of Heaven.[41] The southern cadet branch of Confucius' descendants who held the title Wujing boshi 五經博士 and the sixty-fifth generation descendant of Confucius to hold the title Duke Yansheng in the northern branch both had their titles reconfirmed on 31 October.[41] A formal ritual of enthronement for Fulin was held on 8 November, during which the young emperor compared Dorgon's achievements to those of the Duke of Zhou, a revered regent from antiquity.[42] During the ceremony, Dorgon's official title was raised from "Prince Regent" to "Uncle Prince Regent" (Shufu shezheng wang 叔父攝政王), in which the Manchu term for "Uncle" (ecike) represented a rank higher than that of imperial prince.[43] Three days later Dorgon's co-regent Jirgalang was demoted from "Prince Regent" to "Assistant Uncle Prince Regent" (Fu zheng shuwang 輔政叔王).[44] In June 1645, Dorgon eventually decreed that all official documents should refer to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (Huang shufu shezheng wang 皇叔父攝政王), which left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself.[44]
One of Dorgon's first orders in the new Qing capital was to vacate the entire northern part of Beijing to give it to Bannermen, including Han Chinese Bannermen.[45] The Yellow Banners were given the place of honor north of the palace, followed by the White Banners east, the Red Banners west, and the Blue Banners south.[46] This distribution accorded with the order established in the Manchu homeland before the conquest and under which "each of the banners was given a fixed geographical location according to the points of the compass."[47] Despite tax remissions and large-scale building programs designed to facilitate the transition, in 1648 many Chinese civilians still lived among the newly arrived Banner population and there was still animosity between the two groups.[48] Agricultural land outside the capital was also marked off (quan 圈) and given to Qing troops.[49] Former landowners now became tenants who had to pay rent to their absentee Bannermen landlords.[49] This transition in land use caused "several decades of disruption and hardship."[49]
In 1646, Dorgon also ordered that the civil examinations for selecting government officials be reestablished. From then on they were held regularly every three years as under the Ming. In the very first palace examination held under Qing rule in 1646, candidates, most of whom were northern Chinese, were asked how the Manchus and Han Chinese could be made to work together for a common purpose.[50] The 1649 examination inquired about "how Manchus and Han Chinese could be unified so that their hearts were the same and they worked together without division."[51] Under the Shunzhi Emperor's reign, the average number of graduates per session of the metropolitan examination was the highest of the Qing dynasty ("to win more Chinese support"), until 1660 when lower quotas were established.[52]
To promote ethnic harmony, in 1648 an imperial decree formulated by Dorgon allowed Han Chinese civilians to marry women from the Manchu Banners, with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Only later in the dynasty were these policies allowing intermarriage rescinded.[45][53][54]
Conquest of China proper
Under the reign of Dorgon—whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest" and "the principal architect of the great Manchu enterprise"—the Qing subdued almost all of China and pushed loyalist "Southern Ming" resistance into the far southwestern reaches of China. After repressing anti-Qing revolts in Hebei and Shandong in the Summer and Fall of 1644, Dorgon sent armies to root out Li Zicheng from the important city of Xi'an (Shaanxi province), where Li had reestablished his headquarters after fleeing Beijing in early June 1644.[56] Under the pressure of Qing armies, Li was forced to leave Xi'an in February 1645, and he was killed—either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry—in September 1645 after fleeing though several provinces.[57]
From newly captured Xi'an, in early April 1645 the Qing mounted a campaign against the rich commercial and agricultural region of
On 21 July 1645, after Jiangnan had been superficially pacified, Dorgon issued a most inopportune edict ordering all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a
After the fall of Nanjing, two more members of the Ming imperial household created new Southern Ming regimes: one centered in coastal
In late 1646 two more Southern Ming monarchs emerged in the southern province of
Meanwhile, in October 1646, Qing armies led by
Transition and personal rule (1651–1661)
Purging Dorgon's clique
Dorgon's unexpected death on 31 December 1650 during a hunting trip triggered a period of fierce factional struggles and opened the way for deep political reforms.[89] Because Dorgon's supporters were still influential at court, Dorgon was given an imperial funeral and was posthumously elevated to imperial status as the "Righteous Emperor" (yi huangdi 義皇帝).[90] On the same day of mid-January 1651, however, several officers of the White Banners led by former Dorgon supporter Ubai arrested Dorgon's brother Ajige for fear he would proclaim himself as the new regent; Ubai and his officers then named themselves presidents of several Ministries and prepared to take charge of the government.[91]
Meanwhile,
On 1 February, Jirgalang announced that the Shunzhi Emperor, who was about to turn thirteen, would now assume full imperial authority.[92] The regency was thus officially abolished. Jirgalang then moved to the attack. In late February or early March 1651 he accused Dorgon of usurping imperial prerogatives: Dorgon was found guilty and all his posthumous honors were removed.[92] Jirgalang continued to purge former members of Dorgon's clique and to bestow high ranks and nobility titles upon a growing number of followers in the Three Imperial Banners, so that by 1652 all of Dorgon's former supporters had been either killed or effectively removed from government.[94]
Factional politics and the fight against corruption
On 7 April 1651, barely two months after he seized the reins of government, the Shunzhi Emperor issued an edict announcing that he would purge corruption from officialdom.[95] This edict triggered factional conflicts among literati that would frustrate him until his death.[96] One of his first gestures was to dismiss grand academician Feng Quan (馮銓; 1595–1672), a northern Chinese who had been impeached in 1645 but was allowed to remain in his post by Prince Regent Dorgon.[97] The Shunzhi Emperor replaced Feng with Chen Mingxia (ca. 1601–1654), an influential southern Chinese with good connections in Jiangnan literary societies.[98] Though later in 1651 Chen was also dismissed on charges of influence peddling, he was reinstated in his post in 1653 and soon became a close personal advisor to the sovereign.[99] He was even allowed to draft imperial edicts just as Ming Grand Secretaries used to.[100] Still in 1653, the Shunzhi Emperor decided to recall the disgraced Feng Quan, but instead of balancing the influence of northern and southern Chinese officials at court as the emperor had intended, Feng Quan's return only intensified factional strife.[101] In several controversies at court in 1653 and 1654, the southerners formed one bloc opposed to the northerners and the Manchus.[102] In April 1654, when Chen Mingxia spoke to northern official Ning Wanwo (寧完我; d. 1665) about restoring the style of dress of the Ming court, Ning immediately denounced Chen to the emperor and accused him of various crimes including bribe-taking, nepotism, factionalism, and usurping imperial prerogatives.[103] Chen was executed by strangulation on 27 April 1654.[104]
In November 1657, a major cheating scandal erupted during the Shuntian provincial-level examinations in Beijing.[105] Eight candidates from Jiangnan who were also relatives of Beijing officials had bribed examiners in the hope of being ranked higher in the contest.[106] Seven examination supervisors found guilty of receiving bribes were executed, and several hundred people were sentenced to punishments ranging from demotion to exile and confiscation of property.[107] The scandal, which soon spread to Nanjing examination circles, uncovered the corruption and influence-peddling that was rife in the bureaucracy, and that many moralistic officials from the north attributed to the existence of southern literary clubs and to the decline of classical scholarship.[108]
Chinese style of rule
During his short reign, the Shunzhi Emperor encouraged Han Chinese to participate in government activities and revived many Chinese-style institutions that had been either abolished or marginalized during Dorgon's regency. He discussed history,
To counteract the power of the Imperial Household Department and the Manchu nobility, in July 1653 the Shunzhi Emperor established the Thirteen Offices (十三衙門), or Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus, which were supervised by Manchus, but manned by Chinese eunuchs rather than Manchu bondservants.[112] Eunuchs had been kept under tight control during Dorgon's regency, but the young emperor used them to counter the influence of other power centers such as his mother the Empress Dowager and former regent Jirgalang.[113] By the late 1650s eunuch power became formidable again: they handled key financial and political matters, offered advice on official appointments, and even composed edicts.[114] Because eunuchs isolated the monarch from the bureaucracy, Manchu and Chinese officials feared a return to the abuses of eunuch power that had plagued the late Ming.[115] Despite the emperor's attempt to impose strictures on eunuch activities, the Shunzhi Emperor's favorite eunuch Wu Liangfu (吳良輔; d. 1661), who had helped him defeat the Dorgon faction in the early 1650s, was caught in a corruption scandal in 1658.[116] The fact that Wu only received a reprimand for his accepting bribes did not reassure the Manchu elite, which saw eunuch power as a degradation of Manchu power.[117] The Thirteen Offices would be eliminated (and Wu Liangfu executed) by Oboi and the other regents of the Kangxi Emperor in March 1661 soon after the Shunzhi Emperor's death.[118]
Frontiers, tributaries, and foreign relations
In 1646, when Qing armies led by
Also in 1646 sultan
In 1651 the young emperor invited to Beijing the
Meanwhile, north of the Manchu homeland, adventurers
Continuous campaigns against the Southern Ming
Though the Qing under Dorgon's leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652,
Personality and relationships
After Fulin came to rule on his own in 1651, his mother the
The Shunzhi Emperor was an open-minded emperor and relied on the advice of
The emperor developed a good command of Chinese that allowed him to manage matters of state and to appreciate Chinese arts such as calligraphy and drama.[150] One of his favorite texts was "Rhapsody of a Myriad Sorrows" (Wan chou qu 萬愁曲), by Gui Zhuang (歸莊; 1613–1673), who was a close friend of anti-Qing intellectuals Gu Yanwu and Wan Shouqi (萬壽祺; 1603–1652).[151] "Quite passionate and attach[ing] great importance to qing (love)," he could also recite by heart long passages of the popular Romance of the Western Chamber.[150]
Death and succession
Smallpox
In September 1660, Consort Donggo, the Shunzhi Emperor's favourite consort, suddenly died as a result of grief over the loss of a child.[138] Overwhelmed with grief, the emperor fell into dejection for months, until he contracted smallpox on 2 February 1661.[138] On 4 February 1661, officials Wang Xi (王熙, 1628–1703; the emperor's confidant) and Margi (a Manchu) were called to the emperor's bedside to record his last will.[152] On the same day, his seven-year-old third son Xuanye was chosen to be his successor, probably because he had already survived smallpox.[153] The emperor died on 5 February 1661 in the Forbidden City at the age of twenty-two.[138]
The Manchus feared smallpox more than any other disease because they had no
Forged last will
The emperor's
After death
Because court statements did not clearly announce the cause of the emperor's death, rumors soon started to circulate that he had not died but in fact retired to a
After being kept in the Forbidden City for 27 days of mourning, on 3 March 1661 the emperor's corpse was transported in a lavish procession to Jingshan 景山 (a hillock just north of the Forbidden City), after which a large amount of precious goods were burned as funeral offerings.
Legacy
The fake will in which the Shunzhi Emperor had supposedly expressed regret for abandoning Manchu traditions gave authority to the
After the Kangxi Emperor managed to imprison Oboi in 1669, he reverted many of the regents' policies.
Family
Although only nineteen empresses and consorts are recorded for the Shunzhi Emperor in the Aisin Gioro genealogy made by the Imperial Clan Court, burial records show that he had at least thirty-two of them.[183] Twelve bore him children. There were two empresses in his reign, both relatives of his mother the empress dowager. After the 1644 conquest, imperial consorts and empresses were usually known by their titles and by the name of their patrilineal clan.[184]
Eleven of the Shunzhi Emperor's 32 spouses bore him a total of fourteen children,[185] but only four sons (Fuquan, Xuanye, Changning, and Longxi) and one daughter (Princess Gongque) lived to be old enough to marry. Unlike later Qing emperors, the names of the Shunzhi Emperor's sons did not include a generational character.[186]
Before the Qing court moved to Beijing in 1644, Manchu women used to have personal names, but after 1644 these names "disappear from the genealogical and archival records."[184] Only after their betrothal were imperial daughters given a title and rank, by which they then became known.[184] Although five of the Shunzhi Emperor's six daughters died in infancy or childhood, they all appear in the Aisin Gioro genealogy.[184]
Empress
- Consort Jing, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (靜妃 博爾濟吉特氏), first cousin, personal name Erdeni Bumba (額爾德尼布木巴)
- Empress Xiaohuizhang, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (孝惠章皇后 博爾濟吉特氏; 5 November 1641 – 7 January 1718), personal name Alatan Qiqige (阿拉坦琪琪格)
- Empress Xiaoxian, of the Donggo clan (孝獻皇后 董鄂氏; 1639 – 23 September 1660)
- Prince Rong of the First Rank (榮親王; 12 November 1657 – 25 February 1658), fourth son
- Empress Xiaokangzhang, of the Tunggiya clan (孝康章皇后 佟佳氏; 1638 – 20 March 1663)
- Xuanye, the Kangxi Emperor (聖祖 玄燁; 4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), third son
Consort
- Consort Dao, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (悼妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 7 April 1658), first cousin
- Consort Zhen, of the Donggo clan (貞妃 董鄂氏; d. 5 February 1661)
- Consort Ke, of the Shi clan (恪妃 石氏; d. 13 January 1668)
- Consort Gongjing, of the Hotsit Borjigit clan (恭靖妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 20 May 1689)
- Consort Shuhui, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (淑惠妃 博爾濟吉特氏; 1642 – 17 December 1713), first cousin once removed
- Consort Duanshun, of the Abaga Borjigit clan (端順妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 1 August 1709)
- Consort Ningque, of the Donggo clan (寧愨妃 董鄂氏; d. 11 August 1694)
- Fuquan, Prince Yuxian of the First Rank (裕憲親王 福全; 8 September 1653 – 10 August 1703), second son
Concubine
- Mistress, of the Ba clan (巴氏)
- Niuniu (牛鈕; 13 December 1651 – 9 March 1652), first son
- Third daughter (30 January 1654 – April/May 1658)
- Fifth daughter (6 February 1655 – January 1661)
- Mistress, of the Chen clan (陳氏; d. 1690)
- First daughter (22 April 1652 – November/December 1653)
- Changning, Prince Gong of the First Rank(恭親王 常寧; 8 December 1657 – 20 July 1703), fifth son
- Mistress, of the Yang clan (楊氏)
- Princess Gongque of the Second Rank (和碩恭愨公主; 19 January 1654 – 26 November 1685), second daughter
- Married Na'erdu (訥爾杜; d. 1676) of the Manchu Gūwalgiya clan in February/March 1667
- Fourth daughter (9 January 1655 – March/April 1661)
- Princess Gongque of the Second Rank (和碩恭愨公主; 19 January 1654 – 26 November 1685), second daughter
- Mistress, of the Naraclan (那拉氏)
- Sixth daughter (11 November 1657 – March 1661)
- Mistress, of the Tang clan (唐氏)
- Qishou (奇授; 3 January 1660 – 12 December 1665), sixth son
- Mistress, of the Niu clan (鈕氏)
- Longxi, Prince Chunjing of the First Rank (純靖親王 隆禧; 30 May 1660 – 20 August 1679), seventh son
- Mistress, of the Muktu clan (穆克圖氏)
- Yonggan (永幹; 23 January 1661 – 15 January 1668), eighth son
Ancestry
Giocangga (1526–1583) | |||||||||||||||||||
Taksi (1543–1583) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Yi | |||||||||||||||||||
Nurhaci (1559–1626) | |||||||||||||||||||
Agu | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Xuan (d. 1569) | |||||||||||||||||||
Hong Taiji (1592–1643) | |||||||||||||||||||
Taitanju | |||||||||||||||||||
Yangginu (d. 1583) | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Xiaocigao (1575–1603) | |||||||||||||||||||
Mother-in-law of Yehe | |||||||||||||||||||
Shunzhi Emperor (1638–1661) | |||||||||||||||||||
Namusai | |||||||||||||||||||
Manggusi | |||||||||||||||||||
Jaisang | |||||||||||||||||||
Empress Xiaozhuangwen (1613–1688) | |||||||||||||||||||
Boli (d. 1654) | |||||||||||||||||||
In popular culture
- Portrayed by Jung Yoon-seok in the 2013 TV series Blooded Palace: The War of Flowers.
- Portrayed by an unknown voice actor in The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Showepisode "Sherman Exchange Program" under the name "Fulin".
See also
- Chinese emperors family tree (late)
- Chronology of the Shunzhi reign
- List of emperors of the Qing dynasty
Explanatory notes
- ^ Dorgon's brother Dodo received the command to lead this "southern expedition" (nan zheng 南征) on 1 April.[58] He set out from Xi'an on that very day.[59] The Ming Prince of Fu had been crowned as emperor on 19 June 1644.[60][61]
- ^ For examples of the factional struggles that weakened the Hongguang court, see Wakeman 1985, pp. 523–43. Some defections are explained in Wakeman 1985, pp. 543–45.
- ^ Western historians do not seem to agree on the date of the Dalai Lama's visit: see Wakeman 1985, p. 929, note 81 ("1651"); Crossley 1999, p. 239 ("1651"); Naquin 2000, pp. 311 and 473 ("1652"); Benard 2004, p. 134, note 23 ("1652"); Zarrow 2004b, p. 187, note 5 ("between 1652 and 1653"); Rawski 1998, p. 252 ("1653"); Berger 2003, p. 57. The Qing Veritable Records (Shilu 實錄) cited on p. 476 of Li 2003, however, clearly indicate that the Dalai Lama arrived in Beijing on 14 January 1653 (on the 15th day of the last month of the 9th year of Shunzhi) and left the capital sometime in the second month of the 10th year of Shunzhi (March 1653).
- ^ Historians agree that the Shunzhi Emperor's will was either deeply modified or forged altogether. See for instance Oxnam 1975, pp. 62–63 and 205-7; Kessler 1976, p. 20; Wakeman 1985, p. 1015; Dennerline 2002, p. 119; and Spence 2002, p. 126.
- ^ See Meng Sen 孟森 (1868–1937), The Three Disputed Cases of the Early Qing 《清初三大疑案》 (1935) (in Chinese). The other two are whether Dorgon secretly married Empress Dowager Zhaosheng and whether the Yongzheng Emperor usurped the succession to his father, the Kangxi Emperor.
References
Citations
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 34.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, pp. 29–30 (campaigns of Jurchen unification) and 40 (seizing of patents).
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 34.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 36.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 28.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 37.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 42.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 46.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 51.
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 63.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 63.
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 64 (preparing to attack the Ming); Spence 1999, pp. 21–24 (late Ming crises).
- ^ Oxnam 1975 (p. 38), Wakeman 1985 (p. 297), and Gong 2010 (p. 51) all place Hong Taiji's death on 21 September (Chongde 崇德 8.8.9). Dennerline 2002 (p. 74) gives the date as 9 September.
- ^ Rawski 1998, p. 98.
- ^ Rawski 1998, p. 99 (about the White and Yellow banners); Dennerline 2002, p. 79 (table with age of the imperial princes and the banners they controlled).
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 77 (convening of the Deliberative Council to discuss Hong Taiji's succession); Hucker 1985, p. 266 (Deliberative Council as "the most influential shaper of policy in the early Ch'ing" [i.e., Qing]; Bartlett 1991, p. 1 (the Grand Council rose "to the overlordship of almost the entire central government of the Chinese empire" in the 1720s and 1730s).
- ^ a b Dennerline 2002, p. 78.
- ^ Fang 1943a, p. 255.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 73.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 299.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 300, note 231.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 79.
- ^ Roth Li 2002, p. 71.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 809.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 304; Dennerline 2002, p. 81.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 290.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 304.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 308.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 311–12.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 313; Mote 1999, p. 817.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 313.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 314 (were all expecting Wu and the heir apparent) and 315 (reaction to seeing Dorgon instead).
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 315.
- ^ Naquin 2000, p. 289.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 818.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 416; Mote 1999, p. 828.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 420–22 (which explains these matters and claims that the order was repealed by edict on 25 June). Gong 2010, p. 84 gives the date as 28 June.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 857.
- ^ a b Wakeman 1985, p. 858.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 858 and 860 ("According to the emperor's speechwriter, who was probably Fan Wencheng, Dorgon even 'surpassed' (guo) the revered Duke of Zhou because 'The Uncle Prince also led the Grand Army through Shanhai Pass to smash two hundred thousand bandit soldiers, and then proceeded to take Yanjing, pacifying the Central Xia. He invited Us to come to the capital and received Us as a great guest'.").
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 860–61, and p. 861, note 31.
- ^ a b Wakeman 1985, p. 861.
- ^ a b Wakeman 1985, pp. 478–.
- ^ See maps in Naquin 2000, p. 356 and Elliott 2001, p. 103.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 170.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 477 and Naquin 2000, pp. 289–91.
- ^ a b c Naquin 2000, p. 291.
- ^ Elman 2002, p. 389.
- ^ Cited in Elman 2002, pp. 389–90.
- ^ Man-Cheong 2004, p. 7, Table 1.1 (number of graduates per session under each Qing reign); Wakeman 1985, p. 954 (reason for the high quotas); Elman 2001, p. 169 (lower quotas in 1660).
- ^ Wang 2004, pp. 215–216 & 219–221.
- ISBN 978-0-520-25444-2.
- ^ Zarrow 2004a, passim.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 483 (Li reestablished headquarters in Xi'an) and 501 (Hebei and Shandong revolts, new campaigns against Li).
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 501–7.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 521
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 657
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 346
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 644
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 522 (taking of Xuzhou; Struve 1988, p. 657 (converging on Yangzhou).
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 657.
- ^ Finnane 1993, p. 131.
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 657 (purpose of the massacre was to terrorize Jiangnan); Zarrow 2004a, passim (late-Qing uses of the Yangzhou massacre).
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 660.
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 660 (capture of Suzhou and Hangzhou by early July 1645; new frontier); Wakeman 1985, p. 580 (capture of the emperor around 17 June, and later death in Beijing).
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 647; Struve 1988, p. 662; Dennerline 2002, p. 87 (which calls this edict "the most untimely promulgation of [Dorgon's] career."
- ^ Kuhn 1990, p. 12.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 647 ("From the Manchus' perspective, the command to cut one's hair or lose one's head not only brought rulers and subjects together into a single physical resemblance; it also provided them with a perfect loyalty test").
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 648–49 (officials and literati) and 650 (common men). In the Classic of Filial Piety, Confucius is cited to say that "a person's body and hair, being gifts from one's parents, are not to be damaged: this is the beginning of filial piety" (身體髮膚,受之父母,不敢毀傷,孝之始也). Prior to the Qing dynasty, adult Han Chinese men customarily did not cut their hair, but instead wore it in a topknot.
- ^ Struve 1988, pp. 662–63 ("broke the momentum of the Qing conquest"); Wakeman 1975, p. 56 ("the hair-cutting order, more than any other act, engendered the Kiangnan [Jiangnan] resistance of 1645"); Wakeman 1985, p. 650 ("the rulers' effort to make Manchus and Han one unified 'body' initially had the effect of unifying upper- and lower-class natives in central and south China against the interlopers").
- ^ Wakeman 1975, p. 78.
- ^ Wakeman 1975, p. 83.
- ^ a b Wakeman 1985, p. 674.
- ^ Struve 1988, pp. 665 (on the Prince of Tang) and 666 (on the Prince of Lu).
- ^ Struve 1988, pp. 667–69 (for their failure to cooperate), 669-74 (for the deep financial and tactical problems that beset both regimes).
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 675.
- ^ a b Struve 1988, p. 676.
- ^ a b c Wakeman 1985, p. 737.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 738.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 765–66.
- ^ a b Wakeman 1985, p. 767.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 767–68.
- ^ Dai 2009, p. 17.
- ^ Dai 2009, pp. 17–18.
- ^ a b c Rossabi 1979, p. 191.
- ^ Larsen & Numata 1943, p. 572 (Meng Qiaofang, death of rebel leaders); Rossabi 1979, p. 192.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 47 ("intense factional rivalry," "among the fiercest and most complex of the early Ch'ing"); Wakeman 1985, pp. 892–93 (date and cause of Dorgon's death) and 907 (second "great wave of Qing institutional reform" from 1652 to 1655).
- ^ Oxnam 1975, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 47.
- ^ a b c d Oxnam 1975, p. 48.
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 79 (Manchu name; "personal property of the emperor"); Oxnam 1975, p. 48 (timing and purpose of Jirgalang's move).
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 49.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 106.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 107.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 106 (dismissal of Feng Quan in 1651); Wakeman 1985, pp. 865–72 (for the story of the failed purge of Feng Quan in 1645).
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 107 ("coalition of literary societies"); Wakeman 1985, p. 865.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, pp. 108–9.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 109.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 958.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 959–74 (discussion of these cases).
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 976 (April 1654, Ning Wanwo) and 977–81 (long discussion of Chen Mingxia's "crimes").
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 985–86.
- ^ Gong 2010, p. 295 gives the date as 30 November 1657.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 1004, note 38.
- ^ Ho 1962, pp. 191–92.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 1004–5.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, pp. 109 (topics of discussions with Chen Mingxia) and 112 (on Wang Xi).
- ^ Mair 1985, p. 326 ("bare bones"); Oxnam 1975, pp. 115–16.
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 113.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 931 ("Thirteen Offices"); Rawski 1998, p. 163 ("Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus," supervised by Manchus).
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 113; Oxnam 1975, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 931 (composed edicts); Oxnam 1975, p. 52.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 52 (isolated emperor from his officials); Kessler 1976, p. 27.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 1016; Kessler 1976, p. 27; Oxnam 1975, p. 54.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Kessler 1976, p. 27; Rawski 1998, p. 163 (specific date).
- Turfan, not from the Moghul India (Petech 1951, pp. 124–27, cited in Lach & van Kley 1994, plate 315). Kim 2008, p. 109 discusses this Turfan embassy in some detail.
- ^ a b c Wills 1984, p. 40.
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 109.
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 109 ("without solicitation"; location of trade); Rossabi 1979, p. 190 (within the constraints of the old tributary system).
- ^ Rossabi 1979, p. 192.
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 111.
- ^ Rawski 1998, p. 250 (unification or religious and secular rule).
- ^ Rawski 1998, p. 251 (beginning of Qing patronage of Tibetan Buddhism).
- ^ Zarrow 2004b, p. 187, note 5 (political reasons for inviting the Dalai Lama).
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 929, note 81 (site of Qionghua Island and Qubilai's former palace); Naquin 2000, p. 309 (preparation for Lama's visit, "bell-shaped" temple).
- ^ Naquin 2000, p. 473; Chayet 2004, p. 40 (date of the beginning of the construction of the Potala).
- ^ a b c d Fang 1943b, p. 632.
- ^ Turayev 1995.
- ^ Kennedy 1943, p. 576 (Mongol); Fang 1943b, p. 632 (victory, but "yielded no permanent success").
- ^ a b Struve 1988, p. 704.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 973, note 194.
- ^ a b c Dennerline 2002, p. 117.
- ^ Struve 1988, p. 710.
- ^ Spence 2002, p. 136.
- ^ a b c d e Dennerline 2002, p. 118.
- ^ Wakeman 1985, pp. 1048–49.
- ^ Spence 2002, pp. 136–37.
- ^ Spence 2002, p. 146.
- ^ a b Gates & Fang 1943, p. 300.
- ^ Wu 1979, p. 36.
- ^ Wu 1979, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Wu 1979, p. 16.
- ^ a b Spence 1969, p. 19.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 54; Wakeman 1985, p. 858, note 24.
- ^ Spence 1969, p. 19; Wakeman 1985, p. 929, note 82.
- ^ Spence 1969, p. 19 (list of privileges); Fang 1943a, p. 258 (date of conversion to Buddhism).
- ^ a b Zhou 2009, pp. 12.
- ^ Wakeman 1984, p. 631, note 2.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 205.
- ^ Spence 2002, p. 125. Note that Xuanye was born in May 1654, and was therefore less than seven years old. Both Spence 2002 and Oxnam 1975 (p. 1) nonetheless claim that he was "seven years old." Dennerline 2002 (p. 119) and Rawski 1998 (p. 99) indicate that he was "not yet seven years old." In Chinese documents concerning the succession, Xuanye was said to be eight sui (Oxnam 1975, p. 62).
- ^ Perdue 2005, p. 47 ("Seventy to 80 percent of those infected died"); Chang 2002, p. 196 (most feared disease among the Manchus).
- ^ Chang 2002, p. 180.
- ^ a b Chang 2002, p. 181.
- ^ Naquin 2000, p. 311 (Southern Park used as hunting ground); Chang 2002, pp. 181 (number of outbreaks) and 192 (Dorgon building a bidousuo in the Southern Park).
- ^ Naquin 2000, p. 296 (on rule forcing Chinese residents to move out).
- ^ Oxnam 1975, pp. 48 (on the four men helping Jirgalang), 50 (date of promulgation of the edict of succession), and 62 (on appointment of the four regents); Kessler 1976, p. 21 (on helping to get rid of Dorgon's faction in the early 1650s).
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 52.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 51 (on proclamations in which the emperor "publicly degraded himself") and 52 (on the centrality of these policies to the Shunzhi Emperor's rule).
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 63.
- ^ Spence 2002, p. 125.
- ^ Fang 1943a, p. 258 (emperor became a devout Buddhist in 1657); Dennerline 2002, p. 118 (emperor had become devoted to Buddhism "by 1659"; monks living in the palace).
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 205 (for monk's diary, citing an older study by Chinese historian Meng Sen 孟森); Spence 2002, p. 125 (on the two suicides).
- ^ Standaert 2008, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Standaert 2008, p. 75.
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 477, note 122 (citing several studies and primary documents). By contrast, Hong Taiji and the Shunzhi Emperor's two empresses had been cremated (Elliott 2001, p. 264).
- ^ a b Fang 1943a, p. 258.
- ^ Chang 2007, p. 86.
- ^ Kessler 1976, p. 26; Oxnam 1975, p. 63.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 65.
- ^ Oxnam 1975, p. 71 (details of membership in the Deliberative Council); Spence 2002, pp. 126–27 (other institutions).
- ^ Kessler 1976, pp. 31–32 (Ming history case), 33–36 (tax arrears case), and 39–46 (clearing of the coast).
- ^ Spence 2002, p. 133.
- ^ Kessler 1976, p. 30 (restored in 1670).
- ^ a b c Spence 2002, p. 122.
- ^ Spence 2002, pp. 140–43 (details of the campaigns).
- ^ Li 2010, p. 153.
- ^ Rawski 1998, p. 113 (use of variolation starting in 1681).
- ^ Dennerline 2002, p. 73 (citation); Wakeman 1985, p. 1125 (institutional foundation, awesome proportion).
- ^ Wakeman 1985, p. 1127.
- ^ See table in Rawski 1998, p. 141.
- ^ a b c d Rawski 1998, p. 129.
- ^ See table in Rawski 1998, p. 142.
- ^ See table in Rawski 1998, p. 112.
Works cited
- Main studies
- Dennerline, Jerry (2002), "The Shun-chih Reign", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–119, ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 255–59.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
. In - Struve, Lynn (1988), "The Southern Ming", in Mote, Frederic W.; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John King (eds.), Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 641–725, ISBN 0-521-24332-7.
- ISBN 0-520-04804-0. In two volumes.
- Other works
- Bartlett, Beatrice S. (1991), Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-08645-7.
- Benard, Elisabeth (2004), "The Qianlong emperor and Tibetan Buddhism", in Millward, James A.; et al. (eds.), New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde, London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, pp. 123–35, ISBN 0-415-32006-2.
- Berger, Patricia (2003), Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 0-8248-2563-2.
- Chang, Chia-feng (2002), "Disease and its Impact on Politics, Diplomacy, and the Military: The Case of Smallpox and the Manchus (1613–1795)", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 57 (2): 177–97, PMID 11995595.
- Chang, Michael G. (2007), A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring and the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785, Cambridge (Mass.) and London: Harvard University Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-02454-0.
- Chayet, Anne (2004), "Architectural wonderland: an empire of fictions", in Millward, James A.; et al. (eds.), New Qing Imperial History: The making of Inner Asian empire at Qing Chengde, London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, pp. 33–52, ISBN 0-415-32006-2.
- ISBN 0-520-21566-4.
- Dai, Yingcong (2009), The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-98952-5.
- ISBN 0-8047-4684-2.
- Elman, Benjamin A. (2001), A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-21509-5.
- Elman, Benjamin A. (2002), "The Social Roles of Literati in Early to Mid-Ch'ing", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 360–427, ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
- Fang, Chao-ying (1943). Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. p. 632.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
. In - Finnane, Antonia (1993), "Yangzhou: A Central Place in the Qing Empire", in Cooke Johnson, Linda (ed.), Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China, Albany, NY: SUNY Press, pp. 117–50, ISBN 0-7914-1423-X.
- Gates, M. Jean; Fang, Chao-ying (1943). Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 300–1.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
. In - Gong, Baoli 宫宝利 (2010), Shunzhi shidian 顺治事典 ["Events of the Shunzhi reign"] (in Chinese), Beijing: Zijincheng chubanshe 紫禁城出版社 ["Forbidden City Press"], ISBN 978-7-5134-0018-3.
- Ho, Ping-ti (1962), The Ladder of Success in Imperial China: Aspects of Social Mobility, 1368–1911, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-05161-1.
- ISBN 0-8047-1193-3.
- Kennedy, George A. (1943). Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. p. 576.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
. In - Kessler, Lawrence D. (1976), K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661–1684, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-43203-3.
- Kim, Kwangmin (2008), Saintly brokers: Uyghur Muslims, trade, and the making of Central Asia, 1696–1814, PhD diss., History Department, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-109-10126-3.
- ISBN 0-674-82152-1.
- Lach, Donald F.; van Kley, Edwin J. (1994), Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III, A Century of Advance, Book Four, East Asia, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-46734-4.
- Larsen, E. S.; Numata, Tomoo (1943). Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. p. 572.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
. In - Li, Wai-yee (2010), "Early Qing to 1723", in ISBN 978-0-521-11677-0(2-volume set).
- Li, Zhiting 李治亭, ed. (2003), Qingchao tongshi: Shunzhi fenjuan 清朝通史: 順治分卷 [General History of the Qing Dynasty: Shunzhi Volume] (in Chinese), Beijing: Zijincheng chubanshe 紫禁城出版社 ["Fordidden City Press"], ISBN 7-80047-380-5.
- ISBN 0-520-06172-1.
- Man-Cheong, Iona D. (2004), The Class of 1761: Examinations, State, and Elites in Eighteenth-Century China, Stanford: Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-4146-8.
- ISBN 0-674-44515-5.
- Naquin, Susan (2000), Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-21991-0.
- ISBN 0-226-64244-5.
- ISBN 0-674-01684-X.
- Petech, Luciano (1951), "La pretesa ambasciata di Shah Jahan alla Cina ["The alleged embassy of Shah Jahan to China"]", Rivista degli studi orientali ["Review of Oriental Studies"] (in Italian), XXVI: 124–27.
- (in Chinese) Qingshi gao 清史稿 ["Draft History of Qing"]. Edited by Zhao Erxun 趙爾巽 et al. Completed in 1927. Citing 1976–77 edition by Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, in 48 volumes with continuous pagination.
- Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998), The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-22837-5.
- Rossabi, Morris (1979), "Muslim and Central Asian Revolts", in Spence, Jonathan D.; Wills, John E. Jr. (eds.), From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp. 167–99, ISBN 0-300-02672-2.
- Roth Li, Gertraude (2002), "State Building Before 1644", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1:The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9–72, ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
- ISBN 0-14-005528-2.
- ISBN 0-393-97351-4.
- Spence, Jonathan D. (2002), "The K'ang-hsi Reign", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–82, ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
- Standaert, Nicolas (2008), The Interweaving of Rituals: Funerals in the Cultural Exchange Between China and Europe, Seattle: University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-98810-8.
- Turayev, Vadim [Вадим Тураев] (1995), "О ХАРАКТЕРЕ КУПЮР В ПУБЛИКАЦИЯХ ДОКУМЕНТОВ РУССКИХ ЗЕМЛЕПРОХОДЦЕВ XVII ["Regarding omissions in the publication of documents by seventeenth-century Russian explorers"]", in A.R. Artemyev (ed.), Русские первопроходцы на Дальнем Востоке в XVII – XIX вв. (Историко-археологические исследования) ["Russian pioneers in the Far East in the 17th–19th centuries: historical and archaeological research"], volume 2 (in Russian), Vladivostok: Rossiĭskaia akademiia nauk, Dalʹnevostochnoe otd-nie, ISBN 5-7442-0402-4.
- ISBN 0-520-02597-0.
- Wakeman, Frederic (1984), "Romantics, Stoics, and Martyrs in Seventeenth-Century China", Journal of Asian Studies, 43 (4): 631–65, S2CID 163314256.
- Wills, John E. (1984), Embassies and Illusions: Dutch and Portuguese Envoys to K'ang-hsi, 1666–1687, Cambridge (Mass.) and London: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-24776-0.
- Wu, Silas H. L. (1979), Passage to Power: K'ang-hsi and His Heir Apparent, 1661–1722, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-65625-3.
- Zarrow, Peter (2004a), "Historical Trauma: Anti-Manchuism and Memories of Atrocity in Late Qing China", History and Memory, 16 (2): 67–107, S2CID 161270740.
- Zarrow, Peter (2004b), "Qianlong's inscription on the founding of the Temple of the Happiness and Longevity of Mt Sumeru (Xumifushou miao)", in Millward, James A.; et al. (eds.), New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde, translated by Zarrow, London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, pp. 185–87, ISBN 0-415-32006-2.
- Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century". Modern China. 32 (1). Sage Publications: 3–30. S2CID 144587815.
- Zhou, Ruchang [周汝昌] (2009), Between Noble and Humble: Cao Xueqin and the Dream of the Red Chamber, edited by Ronald R. Gray and Mark S. Ferrara, translated by Liangmei Bao and Kyongsook Park, New York: Peter Lang, ISBN 978-1-4331-0407-7.
External links
- Media related to Shunzhi Emperor at Wikimedia Commons