Mercenary War
Mercenary War | |||||||||
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Part of the | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
Carthage |
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Hanno Hamilcar Barca Hannibal | ) | ||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
Unknown | 90,000 | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
Unknown | High |
The Mercenary War, also known as the Truceless War, was a mutiny by troops that were employed by Carthage at the end of the First Punic War (264–241 BC), supported by uprisings of African settlements revolting against Carthaginian control. It lasted from 241 to late 238 or early 237 BC and ended with Carthage suppressing both the mutiny and the revolt.
The war began in 241 BC as a dispute over the payment of wages owed to 20,000 foreign soldiers who had fought for Carthage in
By early 237 BC, after numerous setbacks, the rebels were defeated and their cities brought back under Carthaginian rule. An expedition was prepared to reoccupy Sardinia, where mutinous soldiers had slaughtered all Carthaginians. However, Rome declared that this would be an act of war and occupied both Sardinia and Corsica, in contravention of the recent peace treaty. This has been considered to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again in 218 BC in the Second Punic War.
Primary sources
The main source for almost every aspect of the
Carthaginian written records
Background
The First Punic War was fought between
While the war with Rome was being played out, the Carthaginian general Hanno, who was one of several Carthaginian Hannos known as "the great", was leading a series of campaigns which greatly increased the area of Africa controlled by Carthage. He extended its control to Theveste (modern Tébessa, Algeria) 300 km (190 mi) south-west of their capital.[29][30] Hanno was rigorous in squeezing taxes out of the newly conquered territory to pay for both the war with Rome and his campaigns.[30] Half of all agricultural output was taken as war tax, and the tribute previously due from towns and cities was doubled. These exactions were harshly enforced, causing extreme hardship in many areas.[31][32]
Carthaginian armies were nearly always composed of foreigners; citizens served in the army only if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage. The majority of these foreigners were from North Africa.
Mutiny
After receiving orders to make peace on whatever terms he could negotiate, Hamilcar left Sicily in a rage, convinced that the surrender was unnecessary. The evacuation of the Carthaginian army of 20,000 men from Sicily was left in the hands of Gisco. Not wishing the freshly idle soldiers to combine for purposes of their own, Gisco split the army into small detachments based on their regions of origin. He sent these back to Carthage one at a time. He anticipated they would be promptly paid the several years' back pay they were owed and hurried on their way home.[40] The Carthaginian authorities decided to instead wait until all of the troops had arrived and then attempt to negotiate a settlement at a lower rate. Meanwhile, as each group arrived it was billeted inside the city of Carthage where the advantages of civilisation were appreciated to the full after up to eight years under siege. This "tumultuous licentiousness" so alarmed the city's authorities that before the full 20,000 had arrived they were relocated to Sicca Veneria (modern El Kef), 180 km (110 mi) away, even though much of their arrears had to be paid before they would go.[41]
Freed of their long period of military discipline and with nothing to do, the men grumbled among themselves and refused all attempts by the Carthaginians to pay them less than the full amount due. Frustrated by the Carthaginian negotiators' attempts to haggle, all 20,000 troops marched to Tunis, 16 km (10 mi) from Carthage. Panicking, the Senate agreed to pay in full. The
War
Hanno
Hanno, as the commander of Carthage's African army, took the field.
In early 240 BC Hanno set off with the army to relieve Utica;[51] he took with him 100 elephants and a siege train.[52][note 5] Hanno stormed the rebels' camp in the Battle of Utica and his elephants routed the besiegers. Hanno's army took over the camp and Hanno himself entered the city in triumph. However, the battle-hardened veterans of the Sicilian army regrouped in the nearby hills and, not being pursued, returned towards Utica. The Carthaginians, accustomed to fighting the militias of the Numidian cities, were still celebrating their victory when the rebels counter-attacked. The Carthaginians fled, with great loss of life, losing their baggage and siege trains. For the rest of the year Hanno skirmished with the rebel force, repeatedly missing opportunities to bring it to battle or to place it at a disadvantage; the military historian Nigel Bagnall writes of Hanno's "incompetence as a field commander".[32][53]
Rome pointedly declined to take advantage of Carthage's troubles. Italians were prohibited from trading with the rebels but encouraged to trade with Carthage; 2,743 Carthaginian prisoners still held were released without a ransom being required and were immediately enrolled into Carthage's army.[54][55] Hiero, the king of the Roman satellite kingdom of Syracuse, was allowed to supply Carthage with the large amounts of food it needed and was no longer able to obtain from its hinterland.[55][56] In late 240 or early 239 BC, the Carthaginian garrisons on Sardinia joined the mutiny, killing their officers and the island's governor. The Carthaginians sent a force to retake the island. When it arrived its members also mutinied, joined the previous mutineers, and killed all of the Carthaginians on the island. The mutineers then appealed to Rome for protection, which was refused.[54][57][58] The classicist Richard Miles writes that "Rome was in no shape to embark on yet another war" and wished to avoid acquiring a reputation for supporting mutinous uprisings.[59]
Hamilcar
At some point during 240 BC the Carthaginians raised another, smaller, force, of approximately 10,000. It included deserters from the rebels, 2,000 cavalry, and 70 elephants. This was placed under the command of Hamilcar, who had commanded the Carthaginian forces on Sicily for the last six years of the First Punic War.
Hamilcar was appointed joint commander of the Carthaginian army, alongside Hanno, but there was no cooperation between the two.[62] While Hanno manoeuvred against Matho to the north near Hippo, Hamilcar confronted various towns and cities which had gone over to the rebels, bringing them back to Carthaginian allegiance with varying mixtures of diplomacy and force. He was shadowed by a superior-sized rebel force, which kept to rough ground for fear of Hamilcar's cavalry and elephants, and harried his foragers and scouts.[63][64] South west of Utica, Hamilcar moved his force into the mountains in an attempt to bring the rebels to battle,[32] but was surrounded. The Carthaginians were saved from destruction only when a Numidian leader, Naravas, who had served with and admired Hamilcar in Sicily, swapped sides, bringing 2,000 cavalry with him.[65][66] This proved disastrous for the rebels, and in the resulting battle, they lost 10,000 killed and 4,000 captured.[67]
Truceless War
Since leaving Carthage, Hamilcar had treated rebels he had captured well and offered them a choice of joining his army or free passage home. He made the same offer to the 4,000 captives from the recent battle.
At some point between March and September 239 BC the previously loyal cities of Utica and Hippo slew their Carthaginian garrisons and joined the rebels.[72] The people of Utica offered their city to the Romans, who, consistent with their response to the mutineers on Sardinia, declined.[59][73] The rebels previously operating in the area moved south and laid siege to Carthage.[72]
Having a clear superiority in cavalry, Hamilcar raided the supply lines of the rebels around Carthage.
Hamilcar then marched on Tunis and laid siege to it in late 238 BC. The city was difficult to access from both the east and the west, so Hamilcar occupied a position to the south with half the army, and his deputy Hannibal[note 6] was to the north with the balance. The rebel leaders taken captive prior to the Saw were crucified in full view of the city. Matho ordered a large-scale night attack, which surprised the Carthaginians, who suffered many casualties. One of their camps was overrun and they lost much of their baggage. In addition, Hannibal and a delegation of 30 Carthaginian notables who were visiting the army were captured. They were tortured and then nailed to the crosses previously occupied by Spendius and his colleagues. Hamilcar abandoned the siege and withdrew to the north.[78][79]
The Senate encouraged reconciliation between Hanno and Hamilcar, and they agreed to serve together. Meanwhile, Matho and his army had left Tunis and marched 160 km (100 mi) south to the wealthy city of Leptis Parva, which had risen against Carthage earlier in the war.[78] Hanno and Hamilcar marched after them with an army totalling perhaps 40,000 including every Carthaginian citizen of military age.[56] The rebels, rather than wait to be besieged, met the Carthaginians in open battle in mid-to-late 238 BC.[80] No details of the battle survive,[81] but the remaining 30,000 rebels were wiped out and Matho captured with few losses to the Carthaginians.[56] Any other prisoners were crucified, while Matho was dragged through the streets of Carthage and tortured to death by its inhabitants.[82] Most of the towns and cities which had not already come to terms with Carthage now did so, with the exceptions of Utica and Hippo, whose inhabitants feared vengeance for their massacre of Carthaginians. They attempted to hold out, but Polybius says that they too "quickly" surrendered, probably in late 238 or very early 237 BC.[83] The surrendered towns and cities were treated leniently, although Carthaginian governors were imposed on them.[84]
Sardinia
Probably in 237 BC, the indigenous inhabitants of Sardinia rose up and drove out the mutinous garrison, which took refuge in Italy.[73] As the war in Africa came to a close, they appealed again for Roman assistance. This time the Romans agreed and prepared an expedition to seize both Sardinia and Corsica.[24] It is unclear from the sources why the Romans acted differently from three years earlier.[54][84] Polybius held that this action was indefensible.[85] Carthage sent an embassy to Rome, which quoted the Treaty of Lutatius and claimed they were outfitting their own expedition to retake the island, which it had held for 300 years. The Roman Senate cynically stated that they considered the preparation of this force an act of war. Their peace terms were the ceding of Sardinia and Corsica and the payment of an additional 1,200 talent indemnity.[85][86][note 7] Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than enter into a conflict with Rome again.[87]
Aftermath
The Romans required a strong military presence on Sardinia and Corsica for at least the next seven years, as they
The historian Dexter Hoyos writes that "the truceless war ... produce[d] a complete and enduring reversal of Carthage's domestic fortunes and military orientation".[26] Miles agrees there was "a period of profound political transformation".[92] Carthage never regained control over its army: generals continued to be, like Hamilcar, selected by their armies; the troops in Spain effectively became the Barcids' private army. Internally the opinions of both the Barcids and the Popular Assembly increasingly dictated to the old-established bodies of the Senate and the Tribunal.[93]
See also
- Salammbô: a novel by Gustave Flaubert set during the war
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
- ^ The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.[4]
- ^ Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)".[20]
- ^ 3,200 talents was approximately 82,000 kg (81 long tons) of silver.[27]
- ^ The Spanish used a heavy throwing spear which the Romans were later to adopt as the pilum.[34]
- ^ The military historian Nigel Bagnall queries the utility of the siege train, as the rebels held no towns which could be besieged.[53]
- Hannibal Barca, of Second Punic War fame.
- ^ 1,200 talents was approximately 30,000 kg (30 long tons) of silver.[27]
Citations
- ^ Carradice 1988, p. 37.
- ^ Robinson 1956, p. 12.
- ^ a b Champion 2015, p. 102.
- ^ Jones & Sidwell 2003, p. 16.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 20.
- ^ a b Tipps 1985, p. 432.
- ^ Shutt 1938, p. 53.
- ^ Walbank 1990, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. x–xi.
- ^ Hau 2016, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Shutt 1938, p. 55.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Champion 2015, pp. 108–109.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Lazenby 1996, pp. x–xi, 82–84.
- ^ Tipps 1985, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Curry 2012, p. 34.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 22.
- ^ Mineo 2015, pp. 111–127.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 23, 98.
- ^ Carradice 1988, p. 49.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 82.
- ^ a b c Lazenby 1996, p. 157.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 97.
- ^ a b Hoyos 2015, p. 206.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1996, p. 158.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 196.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 99.
- ^ a b Hoyos 2015, p. 205.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 114.
- ^ a b c Eckstein 2017, p. 6.
- ^ a b c Scullard 2006, p. 567.
- ^ a b c d Goldsworthy 2006, p. 32.
- ^ a b Koon 2015, p. 80.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 9.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 8.
- ^ a b Hoyos 2015, p. 207.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 133.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 112.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 112–114.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Hoyos 2000, p. 371.
- ^ Lendering 2022, p. 124.
- ^ Hoyos 2007, p. 198.
- ^ a b Rawlings 2017, p. 169.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 204.
- ^ Hoyos 2007, p. 88.
- ^ Warmington 1993, p. 188.
- ^ Hoyos 2000, p. 373.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 114–115.
- ^ a b c Bagnall 1999, p. 115.
- ^ a b c Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 135–136.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1996, p. 173.
- ^ a b c Scullard 2006, p. 568.
- ^ a b Hoyos 2000, p. 376.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 212.
- ^ a b Miles 2011, pp. 209–210.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 207.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 115–117.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 209.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 117.
- ^ Miles 2011, pp. 207–208.
- ^ a b c Miles 2011, p. 208.
- ^ Hoyos 2007, pp. 150–152.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 118.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 118.
- ^ a b c d Eckstein 2017, p. 7.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 210.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 135.
- ^ a b c Hoyos 2000, p. 374.
- ^ a b Goldsworthy 2006, p. 136.
- ^ Hoyos 2015, p. 208.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, p. 119.
- ^ Bagnall 1999, pp. 121–122.
- ^ Hoyos 2007, pp. 146–150.
- ^ a b Bagnall 1999, p. 122.
- ^ Hoyos 2007, pp. 220–223.
- ^ Hoyos 2000, p. 380.
- ^ Eckstein 2017, p. 8.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 211.
- ^ Hoyos 2000, p. 377.
- ^ a b Hoyos 2015, p. 210.
- ^ a b Scullard 2006, p. 569.
- ^ Miles 2011, pp. 209, 212–213.
- ^ a b Lazenby 1996, p. 175.
- ^ Hoyos 2015, p. 211.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 213.
- ^ Collins 1998, p. 13.
- ^ Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 152–155.
- ^ Miles 2011, p. 214.
- ^ Miles 2011, pp. 214–216.
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- ISBN 978-0-304-36642-2.
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