Sierra Nevada
Sierra Nevada | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Peak | Mount Whitney |
Elevation | 14,505 ft (4,421 m)[1] |
Coordinates | 36°34′42.9″N 118°17′31.2″W / 36.578583°N 118.292000°W |
Dimensions | |
Length | 400 mi (640 km) north-south from Fredonyer Pass to Tehachapi Pass[2] |
Width | 80 mi (130 km)[3] |
Area | 24,370 sq mi (63,100 km2)[4] |
Naming | |
Etymology | 1777: Spanish for "snowy mountain range" |
Nickname | the Sierra, the High Sierra, Range of Light (1894, John Muir)[5] |
Geography | |
Country | United States |
States | California and Nevada |
Range coordinates | 38°00′N 119°30′W / 38.000°N 119.500°W |
Geology | |
Age of rock | Mesozoic |
Type of rock | batholith and igneous |
The Sierra Nevada (/siˌɛrə nɪˈvædə, -ˈvɑːd-/ see-ERR-ə niv-A(H)D-ə)[6][a] is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges that forms the western "backbone" of the Americas.
The Sierra runs 400 miles (640 km) north-south and its width ranges from 50 miles (80 km) to 80 miles (130 km) across east–west.[3] Notable features include General Sherman, the largest tree in the world by volume; Lake Tahoe, the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft (4,421 m),[1] the highest point in the contiguous United States; and Yosemite Valley sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite, containing high waterfalls. The Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty-six wilderness areas, ten national forests, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks; and Devils Postpile National Monument.
More than one hundred million years ago during the Nevadan orogeny, granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift less than five million years ago,[8] and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra.
The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. The
Name and etymology
Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range (Santa Cruz Mountains), the term "Sierra Nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior.[11] In 1776, Pedro Font's map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada.[12]
The literal translation is "snowy mountains", from sierra "a range of mountains", 1610s, from Spanish sierra "jagged mountain range", lit. "saw", from Latin serra "a saw"; and from fem. of Spanish nevado "snowy".[13][14]
While many mountain ranges are unanimously referred to in the plural (
Geography
The Sierra Nevada lies primarily in central and eastern California, with the Carson Range, a small but historically important spur, extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from 500 feet (150 m) in the Central Valley[18] to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) atop the highest peaks of its crest 50 to 75 miles (80 to 121 km) to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment. Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift.
Setting
The Sierra Nevada's irregular northern boundary stretches from the
Physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade–Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger
Watersheds
The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco. The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather, Yuba, and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and Kern rivers, which flow into the endorheic basin of Tulare Lake, which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years.
The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake, the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake, the Carson River runs into Carson Sink, the Walker River into Walker Lake; Rush, Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California.
Elevation
The height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet (2,700 m) high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (10,881 ft or 3,317 m). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California. Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States.
South of Mount Whitney, the elevation of the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) near Lake Isabella, but south of the lake, the peaks reach only a modest 8,000 feet (2,400 m).[23]
Notable features
There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada:
- Lake Tahoe is a large, clear freshwater lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of 6,225 ft (1,897 m) and an area of 191 sq mi (490 km2).[24] Lake Tahoe lies between the main Sierra and the Carson Range, a spur of the Sierra.[24]
- Kern Canyonare examples of many glacially-scoured canyons on the west side of the Sierra.
- Yosemite National Park is filled with notable features such as waterfalls, granite domes, high mountains, lakes, and meadows.
- Groves of giant sequoias Sequoiadendron giganteum occur along a narrow band of altitude on the western side of the Sierra Nevada. Giant sequoias are the largest trees in the world.[25]
- Two of the largest rivers in California, which form the Klamath Range); the southern one is the San Joaquin River.
Communities
Communities in the Sierra Nevada include
Protected areas
Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of
The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada.[4] Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land.
The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in the southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year.[27]
Geologic history
The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are
In the
Twenty million years ago, crustal extension associated with the
About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout the Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks.
Uplift of the Sierra Nevada continues today, especially along its eastern side. This uplift causes large earthquakes, such as the
Climate and meteorology
The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by the
The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California.[41] Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin. This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada being the driest state in the United States.[42]
Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal.
The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of the range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds.[43]
Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as
Ecology
The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones, each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species.[33] Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone is higher in the east.[33] A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below:
- The Gray pine (also known as Foothill pine) is intermixed with the oak woodland.[33]: 95
- The Pinyon pine-Juniper woodland, 5,000–7,000 ft (1,500–2,100 m) east side only.[33]: 92
- The Jeffrey pine), 2,500–7,000 ft (760–2,130 m) west side, 7,000–9,000 ft (2,100–2,700 m) east side.[33]: 92 This biotic zone is notable for containing giant sequoia.
- The Red fir) 7,000–9,000 ft (2,100–2,700 m) west side, 9,000–10,500 ft (2,700–3,200 m) east side.[33]: 92
- The Whitebark pine)[47] 9,000–10,500 ft (2,700–3,200 m) west side, 10,500–11,500 ft (3,200–3,500 m) east side[33]: 92
- The alpine region at greater than 10,500 ft (3,200 m), and greater than 11,500 ft (3,500 m) east side.[33]: 92
History
Native Americans
Archaeological excavations placed
Initial European-American exploration
American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions, pueblos (towns), presidios (forts), and ranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada.[51] The first Americans to visit the mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith, crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass.[51]
In 1833, a subgroup of the
Starting in 1841, emigrants from the United States started to move to California via Sonora and Walker Passes.[54]
In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont, accompanied by Kit Carson, was the first European American to see Lake Tahoe. The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft (2,450 m).[55]
Gold rush
The California Gold Rush began at
On August 19, 1848, the
Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams.[60]: 198–200 However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.[61]: 90
By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations.
It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world.[58]: 25 The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush drove Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered.[61]
Thorough exploration
The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored.[9][63] The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer, Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King, explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863.[9] In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon. In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range,[64] and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley, mistakenly believing he had summited Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range.[65] In 1873, Mount Whitney was climbed for the first time by 3 men from Lone Pine, California, on a fishing trip.[9] From 1892 to 1897 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.[9]
Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra.
Logging
Logging in the Sierra Nevada has significantly impacted the landscape. The logging industry in the Sierra Nevada started in the early 1800s, when settlers relied on hand tools and ox-teams.[66]: 103, 127 Before the California Gold Rush, the industry was relatively small, and most of the lumber used in the state was imported. However, as the demand for lumber to support the mining industry increased, logging became a major industry in the region.
Initially, most of the lumber produced in California was used in mining. The Comstock Lode was a major center for logging, with operations supplying lumber for the construction of mine structures, such as tunnels, shafts, and buildings, as well as fuel for the mines. Dan DeQuille observed in 1876, "the Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the forests of the Sierra. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected.”[67]
In the late 1800s, the
The logging industry experienced significant growth in the late 1800s due to several factors. The Timber and Stone Act of 1878 allowed individuals to claim ownership of old-growth timber tracts, which were later consolidated under joint-stock companies, such as those founded by Midwestern lumber magnates.[71]: 142–144 These companies had the financial resources to transport timber from remote locations and build sawmills near the tracks of the Southern Pacific railroad which connected the San Joaquin Valley to the rest of the state in the 1870s. This facilitated the nationwide distribution of lumber. In addition, technological advancements, such as the shay locomotive and the v-shaped log flume, made it easier to transport lumber across mountainous terrain.[66]
Conservation
The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range.
In 1903, the city of
Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park. None of these efforts succeeded, and after World War II, towns such as South Lake Tahoe grew around the shores of the lake. By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000, while the summer population grew to 90,000.[74] The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water. In order to preserve the lake's clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency.[75]
As the 20th century progressed, more of the Sierra became available for recreation; other forms of economic activity decreased. The John Muir Trail, a trail that followed the Sierra crest from Yosemite Valley to Mount Whitney, was funded in 1915 and finished in 1938.[76] Kings Canyon National Park was formed in 1940 to protect the deep canyon of the Kings River.
In the 1920s, automobile clubs and nearby towns started to lobby for trans-Sierra highways over Piute Pass[77] (which would have closed the gap in SR 168) and other locations. However, by end of the 1920s, the Forest Service and the Sierra Club decided that roadless wilderness in the Sierra was valuable, and fought the proposal. The Piute Pass proposal faded out by the early 1930s, with the Forest Service proposing a route over Minaret Summit in 1933.[77] The Minaret Summit route was lobbied against by California's Governor Ronald Reagan in 1972. The expansion of the John Muir and Ansel Adams Wildernesses in the 1980s sealed off the Minaret Summit route.[77]
A trans-Sierra route between Porterville and Lone Pine was proposed by local businessmen in 1923.[78] Eventually, a circuitous route across the Sierra was built across Sherman Pass by 1976.[79]
By 1964, the
The Sierra Nevada still faces a number of issues that threaten its conservation. Logging occurs on both private and public lands, including controversial clearcut methods and thinning logging on private and public lands.
See also
- Bibliography of the Sierra Nevada
- List of Sierra Nevada road passes
- List of Sierra Nevada topics
- Sierra Nevada (Spain)
Explanatory notes
- ^ Spanish pronunciation: [ˈsjera neˈβaða]; lit. 'snowy range'.[7]
- Naval History & Heritage Command(NHHC). February 23, 2005. Retrieved December 15, 2012.
References
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - JSTOR 25177743. Archived from the originalon April 30, 2011.
- ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (1926). "S". Place Names of the Sierra Nevada. San Francisco: Sierra Club. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011.
{{cite book}}
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The Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the Sierras. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected. When once it is planted in the lower levels, it never again sees the light of day. …For a distance of 50 or 60 miles, all the hills of the eastern slope of the Sierras have been to a great extent denuded of trees of every kind; those suitable only for wood as well those fit for the manufacture of lumber for use in the mines.
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