Sigismund III Vasa

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Sigismund III
Sigismund III in robes. Painting by Pieter Soutman from around 1624.
Portrait by Pieter Soutman, c. 1624
  • King of Poland
  • Grand Duke of Lithuania
Reign19 August 1587 – 30 April 1632
Władysław IV
Reign17 November 1592[1] – 24 July 1599
Coronation19 February 1594
PredecessorJohn III
SuccessorCharles IX
Born20 June 1566
Gripsholm, Mariefred, Sweden
Died30 April 1632(1632-04-30) (aged 65)
Warsaw, Poland
Burial4 February 1633
Wawel Cathedral, Kraków
Spouses
​
​
(m. 1592; died 1598)​
​
​
(m. 1605; died 1631)​
Issue
among others...
Roman Catholicism
SignatureSigismund III's signature

Sigismund III Vasa (Polish: Zygmunt III Waza, Lithuanian: Žygimantas Vaza; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632

Roman Catholicism across the vast realm, and his crusades against neighbouring states marked Poland's largest territorial expansion. As an enlightened despot, he presided over an era of prosperity and achievement, further distinguished by the transfer of the country's capital from Kraków to Warsaw
.

Sigismund was the son of King

Protestant Sweden caused a war against Sigismund headed by Sigismund's uncle Charles IX
, who deposed him in 1599.

Sigismund attempted to hold

invasion of Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in brief control over Moscow and seizure of Smolensk. Sigismund's army also defeated the Ottoman forces in southeastern Europe, which hastened the downfall of Sultan Osman II. However, the Polish–Swedish conflict had a less favourable outcome. After a series of skirmishes ending in a truce, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden launched a campaign against the Commonwealth and annexed parts of Polish Livonia
.

Sigismund remains a controversial figure in Poland. He is one of the country's most recognisable

modern history. It was commissioned after Sigismund's death by his son and successor, Władysław IV
.

Early life

Gripsholm. An 1859 painting by Józef Simmler
.

Born on 20 June 1566 at

Lutheran, but the close relationship between the two siblings remained unchanged until her death in 1625.[6]

In October 1567, Sigismund and his parents were released from prison at the request of his uncle Charles.[7][8] In January 1569, Eric XIV was deposed and Sigismund's father ascended the throne of Sweden as John III.[9] He maintained good relations with his father despite John's second marriage to Gunilla Bielke, a Protestant noble lady of lower status and Catherine's former maid of honour.[10] In 1589, Sigismund's half-brother John, the future Duke of Östergötland, was born.[11]

As a child, Sigismund was tutored in both Polish and Swedish, thus making him bilingual.[10] He was also proficient in German, Italian, and Latin.[12][13] Catherine ensured that her son was educated in the spirit of Catholicism and Polish patriotism; the young prince was made aware of his blood connection to the Jagiellonian dynasty which ruled Poland in its finest period for two hundred years.[10][14] Although Sigismund in his youth enjoyed reading and learning, observers did not acknowledge his intelligence.[15] He was handsome, rather tall, and of slim build,[16] but timid and an introvert who became heavily influenced by the teachings of the church.[17] Nevertheless, Sigismund was undoubtedly multitalented and artistically inclined.[17]

Accession

Main article: War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588)
Painting of young Sigismund from 1585 by an unknown painter
Sigismund in his youth, 1585.

In 1587, Sigismund stood for election to the Polish throne after the death of

Crown Prince of Sweden, and thus would lawfully succeed to the throne of Sweden upon the death of his father.[21]

The outcome of the election was strongly contested by factions of the Polish nobility that backed the candidacy of Archduke

launched a military expedition.[22] When the news reached Sigismund in Sweden, he crossed the Baltic and landed in Poland on 7 October, immediately agreeing to grant royal privileges to the Sejm (parliament) in the hope of calming the opposition and settling the disputed election.[23] He was proclaimed king by Treasurer Jan Dulski on behalf of Crown Marshal Andrzej Opaliński, and after arriving in the Royal Capital City of Kraków he was crowned on 27 December at Wawel Cathedral.[24]

Sigismund's position was solidified when

Catholic Austria against Protestant foes.[27]

When his father died, Sigismund was granted permission by the Polish Diet to claim the

Jesuits often acted as agents refuting Protestantism and promoting Catholicism in the country.[35]

Opposition

Jan Zamoyski by Johann Franck, 1688
Chancellor Jan Zamoyski staunchly opposed the pro-Habsburg alliance.

The hostility between Chancellor

Habsburg candidates.[38]

Sigismund saw a potential ally in Austria; he sought to establish a Catholic league that would actively engage in the

Clement VIII.[40]

Archduke Ernest of Austria on an official portrait from 1580, by Alonso Sanchez Coello
Archduke Ernest of Austria, whose correspondence with Sigismund caused a political crisis.

At the subsequent Sejm session, assembled in March 1590, Zamoyski persuaded the gathered deputies and representatives to exclude Archduke Maximilian from future candidacy to the throne, describing the possibility of Austrian intrigues and the looming threat of the Turkish Empire.[41] His opponents, headed by Primate Karnkowski, formed an informal confederation immediately after the Sejm rose to protest the decrees.[41] All of the decrees of the first Sejm were rescinded by a second Sejm which sat at the end of the same year: the Hetmanship was suspended, the party of Maximilian was amnestied, the Zborowskis were rehabilitated, and Zamoyski's counterparts were removed from the royal court.[42] Tensions grew further over the ownership of Estonia between Sweden and Poland following the dissolution of the Livonian Order;[43] Zamoyski held Sigismund accountable for the dispute.[24]

Sigismund's leniency towards the Habsburgs also alienated some clerics; the Austrians wanted to prevent

ordained priest and was not legally capable to become bishop.[46] The decision strained the once friendly relations between Poland and Transylvania.[47]

Peace settlement

Sigismund in royal pose by court painter Martin (Marcin) Kober
Sigismund early in his reign, by court painter Martin Kober.

As outlined by Oskar Halecki, the king's friends were largely recruited from the higher clergy and the Jesuits, who violated the 1573 Warsaw Confederation guaranteeing religious freedoms in Poland and Lithuania.[48] As persecution loomed, political dissidents grouped and formed factions which called for adherence to the laws of the Confederation.[48] Zamoyski joined the dissidents, and, when Sigismund failed to prevent mob violence directed against non-Catholics in Vilnius and Kraków in 1591, he summoned several conventions that "demanded the guarantees of security".[48] Sigismund yielded to their demands, however, he forbade any future conventions which could destabilize the state. The prohibition did not have a lasting effect, and gatherings of dissidents continued in the following year.[48]

The opposition hoped to thwart the match with Archduchess Anne of Habsburg, whose state entry into Kraków at the end of May was greatly celebrated.

Jędrzejów (Latin: Andreiow) attended by the most eminent and distinguished magnates, among them Mikołaj Zebrzydowski and Stanisław Żółkiewski.[49] At Andreiow, he allegedly exposed proof concerning a plot that would place Archduke Ernest on the throne if Sigismund was to abdicate.[48] Zamoyski's claim caused an uproar.[48]

On 7 September, Sigismund summoned the "Warsaw Inquisition Sejm" (sejm inkwizycyjny)[49] to inquire into the so-called "Austrian cabals". Zamoyski's strong argument against that of the monarch was so persuasive that elderly Karnkowski sided with the Chancellor and his supporters,[48] who abstained from kissing the King's hand upon arrival as the custom required.[50] Alleged letters and private correspondence between Sigismund and Ernest with the royal signature was presented as evidence.[51][52] The King rebuked these accusations; his aides attributed the falsified signature to the court scribe, who was subsequently imprisoned at Działdowo (Soldau), tortured, but pleaded not guilty.[53] The opposition extended their demands and asked for the immediate removal of all foreign dignitaries from the court, including mercenaries, which was not fully enforced.[54]

The Sejm had no definite outcome; most of the gathered nobles and diplomats dispersed as further incrimination of the sovereign proved futile and detrimental to the stability of the state.[55] There is little evidence or written works from the period concerning the terms under which the Sejm functioned or how it concluded.[56] Niemcewicz largely attributed the victory to Sigismund – the measures of the Counter-Reformation strengthened[57] and within a year many of the convention's attendees died; acquiescent nobles favourable to the king were appointed as their successors, thus making his position less vulnerable.[56] The rivalry between Sigismund and Zamoyski continued until the latter's death in 1605.[58][59]

War in Sweden

Main article: War against Sigismund
See also: Cudgel War and Battle of Stångebro

Tensions

Full body painting of Karl IX (Charles IX), King of Sweden
Charles of Sweden, Sigismund's uncle, who waged war against Sigismund and Poland for the Swedish crown.

The Uppsala Resolution of 1594 dictated the rights and securities of Protestants in Sweden; it promised to uphold the Lutheran faith in the country, forbade non-Lutherans from being appointed to office or participating in the educational system and prevented Sigismund from freely raising taxes for war.[60] However, the resolution was undermined whenever possible.[60] With military backing, Sigismund installed his own commanders in Swedish castles and made them responsible directly to him.[60] He established the office of regional governor (ståthållare) and appointed Charles' lifelong enemy, Klaus Fleming, as the overlord of Finland.[60] The governors served notice that they would abstain from persecuting Catholicism in their administered territories.[60] Erik Brahe, a Roman Catholic, became the governor of Sweden's capital city, Stockholm, in defiance of the 1594 charter which sparked widespread anger.[60]

On 4 August 1594 Sigismund decreed that the Swedish parliament (Riksdag) had no right to function without royal consent.[61] Despite this, Charles summoned a parliament at Söderköping in autumn of 1595,[62] at which he declared himself regent and head of government, who would govern Sweden reciprocally with the Privy Council during the King's absence from the realm.[61] The Finnish nobility led by Fleming rejected this resolution and so did Sigismund's emissary who ordered him, in the name of the king, to resign.[63] Fleming sympathised with Sigismund and considered Charles a rebel.[63] In response, Charles instigated a brief revolt against Fleming among the peasants under Jaakko Ilkka in the province of Ostrobothnia, known today as the Cudgel War.[63]

As outlined by historian Gary Dean Peterson, Fleming might have quelled the rebellion but it was Charles who took advantage of the brutality of Fleming's men and started a successful propaganda war.[63] The prospects of Polish and Catholic domination over Sweden became uncertain when Klaus Fleming died on 13 April 1597.[63] He was succeeded by Arvid Stålarm the Younger, who did not accede to Swedish demands and awaited Charles' intervention in Finland.[63] Meanwhile, the nobility dispersed; Erik Gustafsson Stenbock, Arvid Gustafsson Stenbock, Erik Larsson Sparre, Erik Brahe and Sten Banér fled to entreat Sigismund to return and counter Charles.[63]

Civil war

Equestrian portrait of King Sigismund by Peter Paul Rubens

In 1597, a civil war erupted[64] and Duke Charles was able to assume control over a large share of the powerful castles in Sweden, and in this manner achieved control over almost all the realm.[65] However, Finland remained loyal to Sigismund and resisted. In September 1597, he sailed for the Finnish coast and seized Åbo Castle from Fleming's widow, Ebba Stenbock, by the end of the month.[65][63] Charles's troops were not prepared nor strong enough to conquer or hold Finland in its entirety – they sailed back to Stockholm in October and Stålarm retook Åbo the same year.[63]

As noted by envoys, several high-ranking noblemen fighting for Sigismund's cause were instantaneously sent to the

privateers began to violently attack Swedish vessels in the Baltic.[66] By February 1598 Sigismund assembled an army consisting of approximately 5,000 men.[67] On 23 July 1598 the army left Danzig (Gdańsk) with eighty transports, several warships and exiled members of the Swedish parliament.[66] Eight days later they landed in Kalmar, which surrendered without a fight.[66]

After the fall of Kalmar, Charles found himself with major trouble on his hands; the Polish Crown army attracted Swedish followers, and Stockholm, lacking military defence, was easily taken with the help of the nobility and officers of Götaland.[66] The cavalry of Uppland soon joined the royalists, and new forces were mobilised in Finland and Estonia.[66] Charles' troops were greater in numbers, but mostly comprised poorly-trained militias and peasants from the friendly provinces.[65]

Courtyard of Linköping Castle
Linköping Castle where Sigismund met with Charles to discuss the future of the Swedish monarchy.

Sigismund advanced his troops towards Stångebro in Linköping where his sister Anna Vasa resided.[66] On 8 September Charles executed a premature attack on Stångebro which was quickly repelled; his force was surrounded in the night and massacred by the Poles.[66][67] Severed heads on lances and spikes startled Sigismund who ordered an end to the violence.[67] The supposed truce did not come into effect, and, on the morning of 25 September, the armies clashed once more in a major engagement at the Battle of Stångebro. The prevailing fog was instrumental at hiding troop movement; the Swedish rebels used the opportunity to take the bridges on the river Stångån when Sigismund's men were falsely led into a truce and retreated to their camp.[68] Their attempt to regroup and form a second defensive line proved futile and Charles emerged victorious as the Polish army was also cut off from supplies by superior Swedish warships.[68]

Aftermath and deposition

The peace agreement was sealed with a dinner at

Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm, illegitimate son of Duke Charles, defeated the rebellion.[70] A number of Swedes who had sided with Sigismund, including his council supporters, were handed over to Charles as part of the peace settlement.[69] They were later killed in the Linköping Bloodbath of 1600.[68]

Sigismund was officially deposed from the throne of Sweden by a Riksdag held in Stockholm on 24 July 1599.

Estates of the Realm to Linköping.[71] Since Sigismund had not provided a reply, the Estates elected Duke Charles as King apparent, however he would not become Charles IX until his coronation four years later.[71] During the winter and spring of 1600, Charles also occupied the Swedish part of Estonia, as the castle commanders had shown sympathies towards Sigismund.[71]

Polish affairs

Clash with England (1597)

A profile portrait of Sigismund by Polish painter Jan Szwankowski from around 1590
Portrait of Sigismund as a young adult by Jan Szwankowski, c. 1590.

In the 1590s, the interests of the English and the Ottoman Turks coincided in opposing the Spanish; on the other hand, Sigismund had clashed with the Turks in Poland's southeast.[72] In the Low Countries of northwestern Europe, Protestant forces sent by Elizabeth I fought the Catholic armies of Spain's Philip II Habsburg, preventing Spain from capturing territory on the south side of the English Channel. England's naval power also prevented Spain from completely dominating the Mediterranean, to the benefit of the Turks.[73] During this time, England purchased a great deal of grain and timber from Poland to supply its navy, necessitating good relations with Poland.[74] Edward Barton, Elizabeth's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, had warned them that England would have to respond if the Ottomans invaded Poland.[74]

In July 1597, the

palace in Greenwich.[76] As described by Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, the ambassador out of Poland at first seemed to be "a gentleman of excellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and person."[76] He presented his credentials, kissed the Queen's hand, then walked to the centre of the chamber and, as outlined by Cecil, "began his oration aloud in Latin, with such a gallant countenance as in my life I never beheld."[76][77]

Działyński informed Elizabeth that Sigismund was outraged that her vessels were capturing the ships of Polish and Hanseatic merchants trading with the Spanish, and indicated that Sigismund was prepared to commence hostilities over the matter unless Elizabeth immediately rescinded this policy and returned captured ships and cargo.[78]

Elizabeth rose "lionlike" and rebuked Działyński, comparing his speech to a declaration of war and manners to that of "a herald than an ambassador."[76][78] She reminded him that England was instrumental in halting the Turkish advances and added "I can hardly believe that if the King [Sigismund] himself were present he would have used such language."[76][78] Sigismund emerged successful in securing trade with the Spanish Crown and with England, though the relations between the two nations became strained.[79] According to historians Kavita Mudan Finn and Valerie Schutte, William Shakespeare might have used Elizabeth's political anger at the Polish ambassador as an inspiration for Queen Margaret who employs similar strategies in the play Richard III.[80]

Zebrzydowski rebellion (1606)

Main article: Zebrzydowski rebellion
Act by which Sigismund was to be dethroned, 1067
Dethronisation act issued on 24 June 1607.

Sigismund's attempt to grasp unlimited authority resulted in the

magnates. The rebels disapproved of Sigismund's efforts to weaken the diplomatic and political capabilities of the nobility and to introduce an absolute monarchy.[81]

The participants of the rebellion formed a war council and outlined their demands in 67 articles.[83] They demanded the dethronement of Sigismund for breaching the Henrician Articles and stipulated the expulsion of Jesuits from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[84] The Sejm was to be granted the authority of appointing state officials instead of the King, local officials were to be elected and the rights of Protestants expanded.[85] The 1607 Parliament rejected these conditions. Meanwhile, the nobles mobilised in the village of Guzów.[86][87] In 1607 the Polish Royal Army, led by Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, was sent to pacify the rebels. A full-scale battle ensued on 5 July, with 200 casualties, which resulted in the victory of the Royalist forces.[88]

The rebellious nobles formally surrendered to the King at the 1609 meeting of the parliament, which became known as the

Pacification Sejm.[89] In return for their surrender the rebels were granted leniency.[90] Many royal supporters, including Hetman Chodkiewicz, had exacted amnesty for the rebels.[90] Despite the failure to overthrow Sigismund, the rebellion firmly established the rights and privileges of nobles in the Polish political system, confirmed the inviolability of the royal elections and religious tolerance.[81][85]

Sigismund's invasion of Russia (1609–1618)

Main article:
Polish–Muscovite War (1609–1618)
Sigismund depicted in a victorious pose in military attire and hose
Sigismund as supreme commander of Poland–Lithuania, dressed in hose.

Sigismund's major goals were achieving stability of government, combating Protestantism, and expanding Poland's territory.[91] While the Russians were embroiled in a civil war known as the Time of Troubles, Sigismund saw an opportunity to invade Russia and take power. Sweden also became involved, but never made a firm alliance with any one side.[92]

Background

The death of

famine of 1601–1603 which killed two million Russians, around a third of the population.[94] The new Tsar, Boris Godunov, proved to be an ineffective ruler and died after suffering a brain haemorrhage in April 1605.[95] He left one son, Feodor II, who succeeded him and ruled for only a few months, until he and Godunov's widow were murdered under mysterious circumstances in June 1605, possibly on Sigismund's orders.[96] Simultaneously, various impostors and pretenders to the Russian throne appeared claiming to be Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible who in fact died in 1591.[97] After the fall of Sigismund's candidates – False Dmitry I and his Polish wife Marina Mniszech (nicknamed "Marinka the Witch" by the Russians) – Vasili Ivanovich Shuysky was crowned as Vasili IV.[96]

The death of False Dmitry and widespread chaos proved reason for Poland to prepare an invasion.

Catholicism with the use of force or terror if necessary.[99] Lew Sapieha, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, sought neutrality by proposing to Boris Godunov an "eternal" peace treaty between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, but the idea did not gain support and was declined.[100][101]

Campaign

Sigismund at the gates of Smolensk by Italian painter Tommaso Dolabella, 1611
Victorious Sigismund at Smolensk, by Italian-born artist Tommaso Dolabella, 1611.

The

Ladislaus, Sigismund's son, as the new Tsar of Russia.[105] In June 1611 Smolensk fell to the Poles;[105] the deposed Vasili Shuysky was transported in a caged wagon[106] to Warsaw, where he paid tribute to Sigismund and the Senate at the Royal Castle on 29 October 1611. He eventually died in captivity at Gostynin; he was most likely poisoned as his brother died soon after.[107] The Polish army also committed countless atrocities while stationing in Moscow.[108]

In 1611,

Romanov dynasty which ruled Russia until the February Revolution in 1917. Sigismund's personal ambition of ruling the vast lands in the east as well as converting its populace to Catholicism ended in a fiasco. According to Alexander Gillespie, approximately five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, civil war, instigated famine and Sigismund's politics.[113]

Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)

Main article: Thirty Years' War

Sigismund sought to join the Catholic side of the Thirty Years' War, but was denied by the Polish parliament.[114] British historian Robert Nisbet Bain wrote that his plan was to invade and possibly occupy Transylvania, then an Ottoman ally and therefore considered dangerous to the Habsburg monarchy and Poland.[115] The Rákóczis and Gabriel Bethlen were sympathetic with the Sultan and would counterattack if the opportunity arose.[115]

Bain further highlighted that the chief pillars of military strength in Poland, including

Swedish Wars.[115] The indecision and political opposition weakened the alliance between the Habsburg states and the Commonwealth. Polish mercenaries did, however, join the Holy Roman Empire in combat at the Battle of Humenné against Transylvania.[116]

Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621)

Main article: Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621)
Sigismund on horseback striking Turks and Muslims with a lance
Apotheosis of Sigismund following his victory over the Ottoman Empire, etching from 1629. The King's spear striking a Turk symbolizes the triumph of Catholicism and Christianity over Islam.

The

Polish–Ottoman War.[119]

In 1620 the Polish forces were defeated at Cecora and Hetman Żółkiewski perished during the battle.[118] In 1621 a strong army of Ottomans, led by Osman II, advanced from Edirne towards the Polish frontier.[120] Approximately 160,000[121] men besieged the Khotyn Fortress in September 1621, but were defeated at the Battle of Khotyn by a Polish garrison counting no more than 50,000 soldiers.[122] During the siege Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz died of exhaustion and illness in the camp.[123]

The Treaty of Khotyn was signed on 9 October 1621 which resulted in no territorial gain or loss, but Sigismund was to relinquish his claims on Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire was prevented from marching into Poland.[124] Sultan Osman himself was not fully satisfied with the war's outcome and blamed the defiant janissaries.[125] His wish and plans to modernize the army, which was blamed for the defeat, were however opposed by the traditionalist janissary units.[125] That opposition resulted in the 1622 rebellion in which Osman II was deposed and strangled.[125]

Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)

Main article: Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
in a Polish costume, 1631–1632. A lifelong enemy of Sigismund, he attempted to take Ducal Prussia and Livonia.

Following a series of conflicts between Poland and Sweden in

Gustavus Adolphus invaded in 1626 to gain control over Livonia and relinquish Sigismund's claim to the Swedish crown.[126] Sigismund, already in advanced age, continued his long-term ambition to seize Sweden, which gave Gustavus Adolphus a reasonable casus belli and justification for war.[126] Though the Polish army achieved major victories in the previous battles against Sweden, particularly at Kircholm in 1605, the very end proved to be catastrophic.[126][127]

The first skirmish took place in January 1626 near

nervous breakdown.[127]

In May 1626 the Swedes entered

Calvinist, pledged neutrality in the conflict.[132] Jędrzej Moraczewski described George's neutral stance to salvage his dukedom as "comical".[133]

Portrait by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1620s

The Poles attempted to divert the Swedes from Gdańsk by deploying an army to fight at

Battle of Oliva. It was the largest naval battle fought by the Polish royal navy, which successfully defeated the enemy fleet and broke the Swedish blockade.[136]

Although Poland emerged victorious in the final

Dyneburg remained under Polish governance.[137]

Assassination attempt

See also: Michał Piekarski
An imaged depiction of the attempted assassination by Piekarski on Sigismund in Warsaw. Piekarski holds a war hammer
Assassination attempt on Sigismund by Michał Piekarski in 1620.

An unsuccessful attempt on the life of the King was made on 15 November 1620.

St. John's Archcathedral in Warsaw.[139]

Sigismund was to arrive by crossing the alley or passage that linked the

cortege had a casual character and the assassin was most likely overpowered by the attendees.[140]

Warsaw Old Town with St John's Cathedral
The gateway between the Warsaw Castle and St. John's Cathedral was constructed as a precaution after the assassination attempt.

Parishioners gathered around the pale and lifeless King, who collapsed to the ground after the incident.[139] The guards and other attendants, among them Marcin Szyszkowski, were able to revive him and after a medical examination the wounds were found to be non-life-threatening.[139] Chaos erupted when false rumours spread that the King had been murdered as his clothes were stained in blood.[139] Initially, the townsfolk believed that the city was being attacked; the confusion arose when an Italian priest's cry traditore! (traitor) was misinterpreted as "Tatar".[139]

The assassin was widely regarded as a mentally unstable melancholic, unrestrained in deeds.[139] Piekarski's most probable cause for the assassination was fame and recognition; the successful assassination of Henry IV in Paris (1610) by François Ravaillac served as motivation for his actions.[141] For the appropriate moment Piekarski waited patiently ten years.[141] At his trial, he did not deny the crime he committed and heavily insulted the monarch, whilst blaming himself for the failed regicide.[142] Piekarski was executed in a similar manner as Ravaillac on 27 November 1620 in Warsaw;[143] he was publicly humiliated, tortured, and his body torn apart by horses.[144][142] The dismembered remains were subsequently burned and their ashes scattered by a cannon.[142]

Religion

Portrait of young John Albert Vasa in a red cardinal mozzetta
John Albert was appointed bishop at the age of nine and cardinal at the age of twenty thanks to his father's reputation.

The reign of Sigismund marked the beginning of religious persecution during the Counter-Reformation and the downfall of Protestantism in Poland–Lithuania.[145] His hate towards Evangelicals coupled with the advice of Jesuit priests led to repressions and the eventual demise of the Polish Brethren decades later; their expulsion from Poland in 1658 contributed to the spread of Unitarianism across the globe.[146] The Polish Reformed Church, once a thriving institution and community, began to fall.[146] Akin actions were undertaken against other minorities in the country.[147] Sigismund's contempt for Eastern Orthodoxy was equally strong; it was his initiative that the native Ruthenian peoples inhabiting the eastern lands of the Commonwealth be forcibly converted to Catholicism, which laid the foundation for the modern Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.[148] However, in Sweden the policies had an adverse effect; the Reformation in Northern Europe continued and anti-Catholic sentiment strengthened.[149]

The discrimination further extended to

capital offence.[150] However, trade practices continued to thrive and Poland remained a safe haven for refugees fleeing oppression in other parts of the continent, chiefly during the Thirty Years' War.[150]

Religious

bishop of Kraków at the age of twenty in 1632.[152] John Casimir, prior to his election to the throne, was made a cardinal at the behest of Pope Innocent X.[153]

Death

Sigismund's body placed on top of a funeral bier, surrounded by candelabra and royal regalia
Sigismund III on catafalque following his death.

Towards the end of his reign, Sigismund withdrew altogether from politics and devoted himself exclusively to family matters and his interests in performing arts. Little is known about the King's wellbeing at the time suggesting that he was in good health. However, in his last days he became bedridden due to

Sigismund the Old.[154] His uncle, Sigismund II Augustus, also suffered from long-term arthritis.[155]

Shortly after the unexpected death of his second wife,

Easter Sunday he participated in final prayers, whilst being supported by his sons to prevent him from collapsing.[159]

At eight in the morning on 25 April, Kasper Doenhoff, a courtier in charge of opening curtains in the royal bedchamber and greeting the monarch, did not hear a response.[159] Unable to see at a distance he approached Sigismund whose face was paralyzed from a stroke.[159] Hours later he briefly recovered his speech and murmured "there is no cure against the will [power] of death".[159] The paralysis worsened and on 27 April Urszula Meyerin acted as spokeswoman, speaking on behalf of the mumbling king.[159] Prince Ladislaus arrived on the same day.[159] On 28 April, Sigismund's bed was surrounded by his courtiers and the Jesuit priests, who performed exorcism-like prayers.[159] It was his wish that the court be witness to his demise, as interpreted in the words "vanitas vanitatis", Latin for 'all is vanity'.[159]

After days of suffering, Sigismund passed away at Warsaw's Royal Castle at approximately 2:45 am (02:45) on 30 April 1632.[3][160] His close aide Albrycht S. Radziwill wrote "the autopsy on the same day in the afternoon determined that the king's internal organs were healthy. He could have lived another twenty years".[159] His embalmed body was placed in an elaborate tin coffin decorated with soldiers, battle scenes and musical motifs, a masterpiece of 17th-century tin-making.[161] The coffin was interred inside the royal crypt at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków on 4 February 1633.[162]

Legacy

Sigismund's Column at castle Square in Warsaw
Sigismund's Column (1644) in Warsaw is a reminder of the King's decision to transfer the capital of Poland.

Sigismund's death came at a time of great divisions and constant quarrels. His rule of nearly 45 years is perceived by some as controversial – it was distinguished by considerable developments in

magnates from all political spheres obeyed tradition by wearing black outfits for the duration of the interregnum as a sign of mourning.[171] The strict compliance to the practice is said to have stunned foreign dignitaries.[171] There is no doubt that Sigismund was one of Poland's most capable and recognisable sovereigns.[164]

Sigismund's reign arguably marked an end to the

Joannes Broscius (Jan Brożek) wrote a satirical lampoon Gratis directed against the Jesuit priests, which was confiscated and burnt publicly in 1625.[176] Exposed printers and distributors were tied to a pillory and flogged or beaten mercilessly.[176]

Fabrics and garments diversified, thus becoming more striking; Siarczyński writes "clothing, once wool, adorned our sides, now silk, velvet, moire, gold and silver lining. Even a commoner frowns on sheepskin coats. Our coaches and carriages turned ostentatious. We no more venture to our neighbours and camp without the splendour".[179] Jerzy Maternicki outlined that Sigismund was instrumental in developing mining in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[163]

The memory of Sigismund III is still vivid in Warsaw, which he expanded and made the capital of Poland in 1596.

Corinthian column was crowned with a bronze statue of the king wearing armour, holding a cross and a sword.[181] Władysław personally unveiled Sigismund's Column on 24 November 1644 as the first secular column in Europe's modern history.[181][182]

Personal life

A silver coffin with the remains of Saint Stanislaus at Wawel Cathedral
Silver sarcophagus of Saint Stanislaus at Wawel Cathedral is one of several exquisite items commissioned by Sigismund III.[183]

Scholars frequently noted Sigismund's extreme piety, with some calling him a fanatic even during his lifetime.

Calvinists or Lutherans if it depended on him".[18] Historian Paweł Fabisz writes that when James of England and Scotland sent a book with anti-papal connotations, Sigismund deemed the gift "vile" and threw it into the fireplace.[18]

Throughout the entire reign Sigismund maintained high etiquette and courtliness.

Main Market Square and, to the disbelief of his subjects, danced for the public.[186] Sigismund was also known to be physically active in his youth[187] and enjoyed occasional hunting, ice skating and frequently played football; he is widely credited for introducing and popularising the sport in Poland.[187] Members of the royal court disapproved of such activities which were perceived as improper and not worthy of a monarch, particularly the sports.[187]

Sendivogius and Sigismund III, by Jan Matejko
.

Sigismund's personal approach to internal affairs was unpredictable; he was said to have been somewhat temperamental and impetuous at times.[188] Joachim Lelewel compared his character to that of the despotic Philip II of Spain, but unlike Philip who overtly ordered persecution of non-Catholics, Sigismund was more discreet.[189] A determined and stubborn[189] man who sought to strengthen his authority, he was reluctant to participate in pointless conferences. As recalled by his close aide Albrycht Radziwiłł, at one meeting the king decided to sketch an owl in his notepad rather than note important advice.[190]

Sigismund held high regard for the arts and early

Saint Adalbert's silver reliquary at the Cathedral in Gniezno.[196] He was also fascinated by alchemy and ancient methods of turning metals into gold; it is said he experimented with the alchemist and philosopher Michael Sendivogius.[197]

Marriages and children

Anne of Austria in royal attire and Spanish dress
Anne of Habsburg was Sigismund's first consort. An introvert, she was known for her hostile attitude towards Sweden and Protestantism.

On 31 May 1592 Sigismund married his first wife

Maria Anna of Bavaria,[203] and isolated himself from subjects.[205] Anne and Sigismund had five[206]
known children during their marriage:

  1. Anne Marie (Polish: Anna Maria; 23 May 1593 – 9 February 1600)
  2. Catherine (Polish: Katarzyna; May 1594 – June 1594)
  3. Ladislaus (Polish: Władysław; 9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648), reigned 1632–1648 as Władysław IV
  4. Catherine (Polish: Katarzyna; 27 September 1596 – June 1597)
  5. Christopher (Polish: Krzysztof; 10 February 1598)
Constance of Austria in a ruff, wearing an ornate diadem
Constance of Habsburg, Anne's sister and Sigismund's second consort. A devout Catholic, she supported Sigismund in political endeavours.

Sigismund was expected to marry Anna of Tyrol in 1603, however Emperor Rudolf II did not give his consent.[207] Instead, on 11 December 1605 he wedded Constance of Austria (1588–1631), Anne's younger sister.[208] The match was condemned by nobles and clerics who previously opposed Anne and the Habsburg alliance; the match was savagely described as "incestuous".[209][210] The death of Jan Zamoyski, leader of the opposition, in June 1605 allowed for the marriage to take place without incidents.[211] Some threatened to abandon the royal court, notably Piotr Skarga.[209] The marriage further fuelled the anger of Sigismund's most vocal adversaries, Nicholas Zebrzydowski.[212] The wedding ceremony and Constance's entrance into Kraków was so ostentatious it was recorded in the form of a large gouache roll painting known as rolka sztokholmska, now housed in Sweden.[213] Like her sister, Constance was well-educated and religious; she attended mass two to four times a day.[214] She was also a good mother, who particularly cared for her stepson, Ladislaus, even in his twenties.[215] On the other hand, Constance approved of her husband's struggle for absolute power; she maintained considerable influence over Sigismund and the senators. To the general public she appeared cold, strait-laced, intolerant and even antisemitic; in 1626, she forbade the Jews to settle in the town of Żywiec which she privately owned and administered.[216] Under her patronage, Austro-German culture as well as Spanish fashion flourished at the court.[217] Constance died on 10 July 1631 from a heat stroke she suffered after attending mass on the Feast of Corpus Christi weeks earlier.[218] They had seven[219] children:

  1. John Casimir (Polish: Jan Kazimierz; 25 December 1607 – 14 January 1608)
  2. John Casimir (Polish: Jan Kazimierz; 22 March 1609 – 16 December 1672), reigned 1648–1668 as John II Casimir
  3. John Albert (Polish: Jan Albert/Olbracht; 25 May 1612 – 22 December 1634)
  4. Charles Ferdinand (Polish: Karol Ferdynand; 13 October 1613 – 9 May 1655)
  5. Alexander Charles (Polish: Aleksander Karol; 4 November 1614 – 19 November 1634)
  6. Anna Constance (Polish: Anna Konstancja; 26 January 1616 – 24 May 1616)
  7. Anna Catherine Constance (Polish: Anna Katarzyna Konstancja; 7 August 1619 – 8 October 1651), the first wife of Philip William, Elector Palatine.

Urszula Meyerin

The nature of the relationship between Sigismund and one of his trusted courtiers, Urszula Meyerin, has been continually questioned by Polish historians. Born in Munich as Ursula Gienger,[220] she came to Poland with the cortège of future queen Anne in 1592.[221] The king was said to have been infatuated with Urszula, who was known to be attractive and pious.[222] Upon her arrival, she became involved in the affairs of state and was appointed chamberlain (ochmistrzyni in Polish) at the Queen's court.[221] To emphasize her political role and importance, she adopted the Old German equivalent to the title of chamberlain, "Meyerin", as her sobriquet and official name.[221] She devotedly assisted in raising the children and, with time, acted as their tutor.[221]

Meyerin's position as

Duke of Lerma, who ruled in the king's stead, and contemptuously described as "the king's mistress", "ravenous gold-digger", "minister in a skirt" or "Jesuit's bigotry".[220][223] Sigismund's secretary Jan Szczęsny Herburt in his memoirs called her "an obscene favourite".[224] However, it is unknown whether the relations between the two were physical.[225][226]

Gallery

  • False Dmitriy I takes an oath of allegiance to Sigismund III, by Nikolai Nevrev (1874)
    False Dmitriy I takes an oath of allegiance to Sigismund III, by Nikolai Nevrev
    (1874)
  • Statue of King Sigismund III on top of Sigismund's Column in Warsaw
    Statue of King Sigismund III on top of Sigismund's Column in Warsaw
  • A 40-ducat coin depicting King Sigismund III Vasa, 1621
    A 40-ducat coin depicting King Sigismund III Vasa, 1621
  • One of King Sigismund's coins
    One of King Sigismund's coins
  • Gold coin featuring King Sigismund and Queen Anne, 1598
    Gold coin featuring King Sigismund and Queen Anne, 1598
  • Mater Dolorosa painted by Sigismund in the 1620s, based on works by Gortzius Geldorp
    Mater Dolorosa painted by Sigismund in the 1620s, based on works by Gortzius Geldorp
  • Facade relief on the Golden House in Gdańsk
    Facade relief on the
    Golden House in Gdańsk
  • Banner used during Sigismund III Vasa's reign
    Banner used during Sigismund III Vasa's reign

Ancestry

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Recorded as Paul Dzialynski or Paul De Jaline in English historiography[75]

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Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sigismund III of Poland.
Sigismund III Vasa
Born: 20 June 1566 Died: 30 April 1632
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Grand Duke of Lithuania

1587–1632 		Succeeded by
Władysław IV
Preceded by
King of Sweden
Grand Duke of Finland

1592–1599 		Vacant
Title next held by
Charles IX
Titles in pretence
Loss of title
Deposed by Charles IX
 — TITULAR —
King of Sweden

1599–1632 		Succeeded by
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