Silurian

The Silurian (

One important event in this period was the initial establishment of terrestrial life in what is known as the

The Silurian system was first identified by the Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison, who was examining fossil-bearing sedimentary rock strata in south Wales in the early 1830s. He named the sequences for a Celtic tribe of Wales, the Silures, inspired by his friend Adam Sedgwick, who had named the period of his study the Cambrian, from a Latin name for Wales.^[17] Whilst the British rocks now identified as belonging to the Silurian System and the lands now thought to have been inhabited in antiquity by the Silures show little correlation (cf. Geologic map of Wales, Map of pre-Roman tribes of Wales), Murchison conjectured that their territory included Caer Caradoc and Wenlock Edge exposures - and that if it did not there were plenty of Silurian rocks elsewhere 'to sanction the name proposed'.^[18] In 1835 the two men presented a joint paper, under the title On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, Exhibiting the Order in which the Older Sedimentary Strata Succeed each other in England and Wales, which was the germ of the modern geological time scale.^[19] As it was first identified, the "Silurian" series when traced farther afield quickly came to overlap Sedgwick's "Cambrian" sequence, however, provoking furious disagreements that ended the friendship.

The English geologist Charles Lapworth resolved the conflict by defining a new Ordovician system including the contested beds.^[20] An alternative name for the Silurian was "Gotlandian" after the strata of the Baltic island of Gotland.^[21]

The French geologist Joachim Barrande, building on Murchison's work, used the term Silurian in a more comprehensive sense than was justified by subsequent knowledge. He divided the Silurian rocks of Bohemia into eight stages.^[22] His interpretation was questioned in 1854 by Edward Forbes,^[23] and the later stages of Barrande; F, G and H have since been shown to be Devonian. Despite these modifications in the original groupings of the strata, it is recognized that Barrande established Bohemia as a classic ground for the study of the earliest Silurian fossils.

With the supercontinent Gondwana covering the equator and much of the southern hemisphere, a large ocean occupied most of the northern half of the globe.^[26] The high sea levels of the Silurian and the relatively flat land (with few significant mountain belts) resulted in a number of island chains, and thus a rich diversity of environmental settings.^[26]

During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian icecaps were less extensive than those of the late-Ordovician glaciation. The southern continents remained united during this period. The melting of icecaps and

When the proto-Europe collided with North America, the collision folded coastal sediments that had been accumulating since the Cambrian off the east coast of North America and the west coast of Europe. This event is the Caledonian orogeny, a spate of mountain building that stretched from New York State through conjoined Europe and Greenland to Norway. At the end of the Silurian, sea levels dropped again, leaving telltale basins of evaporites extending from Michigan to West Virginia, and the new mountain ranges were rapidly eroded. The Teays River, flowing into the shallow mid-continental sea, eroded Ordovician Period strata, forming deposits of Silurian strata in northern Ohio and Indiana.

The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include two phases of the Tethys, the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys, the Rheic Ocean, the Iapetus Ocean (a narrow seaway between Avalonia and Laurentia), and the newly formed Ural Ocean.

The Silurian period was once believed to have enjoyed relatively stable and warm temperatures, in contrast with the extreme glaciations of the Ordovician before it and the extreme heat of the ensuing Devonian; however, it is now known that the global climate underwent many drastic fluctuations throughout the Silurian,^[27][28] evidenced by numerous major carbon and oxygen isotope excursions during this geologic period.^[29][30][31] Sea levels rose from their Hirnantian low throughout the first half of the Silurian; they subsequently fell throughout the rest of the period, although smaller scale patterns are superimposed on this general trend; fifteen high-stands (periods when sea levels were above the edge of the continental shelf) can be identified, and the highest Silurian sea level was probably around 140 metres (459 ft) higher than the lowest level reached.^[26]

During this period, the Earth entered a warm greenhouse phase, supported by high CO₂ levels of 4500 ppm, and warm shallow seas covered much of the equatorial land masses.^[32] Early in the Silurian, glaciers retreated back into the South Pole until they almost disappeared in the middle of Silurian.^[28] Layers of broken shells (called coquina) provide strong evidence of a climate dominated by violent storms generated then as now by warm sea surfaces.^[33]

The climate and

The Silurian period has been viewed by some palaeontologists as an extended recovery interval following the Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME), which interrupted the cascading increase in biodiversity that had continuously gone on throughout the Cambrian and most of the Ordovician.^[36]

The Silurian was the first period to see megafossils of extensive terrestrial biota in the form of

The first fossil records of vascular plants, that is, land plants with tissues that carry water and food, appeared in the second half of the Silurian Period.^[38] The earliest-known representatives of this group are Cooksonia. Most of the sediments containing Cooksonia are marine in nature. Preferred habitats were likely along rivers and streams. Baragwanathia appears to be almost as old, dating to the early Ludlow (420 million years)^{[needs update?]} and has branching stems and needle-like leaves of 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in). The plant shows a high degree of development in relation to the age of its fossil remains. Fossils of this plant have been recorded in Australia,^[39][40] Canada,^[41] and China.^[42] Eohostimella heathana is an early, probably terrestrial, "plant" known from compression fossils^[43] of Early Silurian (Llandovery) age.^[44] The chemistry of its fossils is similar to that of fossilised vascular plants, rather than algae.^[43]

Fossils that are considered as terrestrial animals are also known from the Silurian. The definitive oldest record of millipede ever known is Kampecaris obanensis and Archidesmus sp. from the late Silurian (425 million years ago) of Kerrera.^[45] There are also other millipedes, centipedes, and trigonotarbid arachnoids known from Ludlow (420 million years ago).^[45][46][47] Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place that included non-predatory prey animals. Extrapolating back from Early Devonian biota, Andrew Jeram et al. in 1990^[48] suggested a food web based on as-yet-undiscovered detritivores and grazers on micro-organisms.^[49] Millipedes from Cowie Formation such as Cowiedesmus and Pneumodesmus were considered as the oldest millipede from the middle Silurian at 428–430 million years ago,^[24][50][51] although the age of this formation is later reinterpreted to be from the early Devonian instead by some researchers.^[52][53] Regardless, Pneumodesmus is still an important fossil as the oldest definitive evidence of spiracles to breath in the air.^[45]

• 
  Cooksonia, the earliest vascular plant, middle Silurian
• 
  Silurian sea bed fossils collected from Wren's Nest Nature Reserve, Dudley UK
• 
  Crinoid fragments in a Silurian (Pridoli) limestone (Saaremaa, Estonia)
• 
  Silurian sea bed fossils collected from Wren's Nest Nature Reserve, Dudley UK
• 
  Eurypterus, a common Upper Silurian eurypterid
• 
  Pterygotus was a giant eurypterid that had a nearly cosmopolitan distribution (reconstruction shown here is Devonian species P. anglicus)
• 
  Trilobites were still diverse and common in the Silurian. Fossils of Calymene celebra are extremely abundant in parts of central US.
• 
  Halysites was a Tabulate coral, an extinct group that lived through the Paleozoic
• 
  Parioscorpio was an enigmatic arthropod from the Silurian of Wisconsin
• 
  A

  Dalmanites limulurus specimen from Silurian strata of New York
• 
  A rock containing several geodized pentamerid brachiopods from strata in Indiana
• 
  Sphooceras was a Nautiloid cephalopod found in Silurian strata of the Czech Republic
• 
  Jamoytius was an enigmatic vertebrate that is possibly related to Anaspid fish
• 
  Poraspis, a genus of armored jawless fish from the Late Silurian of Canada, Norway, and the U.S.
• 
  galeaspid agnathan from the early Silurian (Telychian

  ) of China, showing origin of paired fins
• 
  Qianodus^[79] is a tooth-based chondrichthyan genus from the early Silurian (Aeronian) of China
• 
  Fanjingshania, climatiid spiny shark

  from the lower Silurian (Aeronian) described from disarticulated dermoskeletal elements
• 
  Shenacanthus^[80] is jawed stem-chondrichthyan genus from the early Silurian (Telychian) of China
• 
  Xiushanosteus^[80] is the oldest known placoderm from the early Silurian (Telychian) of China
• 
  Placoderm

  fish from the late Silurian

See also

• Acacus Sandstone

Notes

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      doi:10.1080/14786443508648654
      . From p. 48: " … I venture to suggest, that as the great mass of rocks in question, trending from south-west to north-east, traverses the kingdom of our ancestors the Silures, the term "Silurian system" should be adopted … "
    • Wilmarth, Mary Grace (1925). Bulletin 769: The Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey Compared With Other Classifications, accompanied by the original definitions of era, period and epoch terms. Washington, D.C., U.S.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 80.
18. ^ Murchison, Roderick (1835). "On the Silurian System of Rocks". The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. Third Series, Vol. 7: 46–52 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
19. ^ Sedgwick; Murchison, R.I. (1835). "On the Silurian and Cambrian systems, exhibiting the order in which the older sedimentary strata succeed each other in England and Wales". Report of the Fifth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. § Notices and Abstracts of Miscellaneous Communications to the Sections. 5: 59–61.
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21. Albert Auguste Cochon de Lapparent (1839–1908): Lapparent, A. de (1893). Traité de Géologie
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22. ^ Barrande, Joachim (1852). Systême silurien du centre de la Bohême (in French). Paris, France and Prague, (Czech Republic): (Self-published). pp. ix–x.
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References

• ISBN 0-521-40949-7
  )
• Mikulic, DG, DEG Briggs, and J Kluessendorf. 1985. A new exceptionally preserved biota from the Lower Silurian of Wisconsin, USA. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 311B:75-86.
• Moore, RA; Briggs, DEG; Braddy, SJ; Anderson, LI; Mikulic, DG; Kluessendorf, J (2005). "A new synziphosurine (Chelicerata: Xiphosura) from the Late Llandovery (Silurian) Waukesha Lagerstatte, Wisconsin, USA". Journal of Paleontology. 79 (2): 242–250.
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External links

Wikisource has original works on the topic: Paleozoic#Silurian

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Silurian.

• Ogg, Jim (June 2004), Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)
• Palaeos: Silurian
• UCMP Berkeley: The Silurian
• Paleoportal: Silurian strata in U.S., state by state Archived 2021-03-15 at the Wayback Machine
• USGS:Silurian and Devonian Rocks (U.S.)
• "International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)". Geologic Time Scale 2004. Retrieved September 19, 2005.
• Examples of Silurian Fossils
• GeoWhen Database for the Silurian
• Silurian (Chronostratography scale)