Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar | |
---|---|
José de La Mar | |
1st President of Bolivia[b] | |
In office 6 August 1825 – 29 December 1825 | |
Preceded by | Office established |
Succeeded by | Antonio José de Sucre |
Personal details | |
Born | Caracas, Captaincy General of Venezuela, Spanish Empire | 24 July 1783
Died | 17 December 1830 Santa Marta, Gran Colombia (now Colombia) | (aged 47)
Resting place | National Pantheon of Venezuela |
Nationality |
|
Spouse | |
Domestic partner | Manuela Sáenz |
Signature | |
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios Ponte y Blanco[c] (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. He is known colloquially as El Libertador, or the Liberator of America.
Simón Bolívar was born in
Bolívar began
In his final years, Bolívar became increasingly disillusioned with the South American republics, and distanced from them because of his centralist ideology. He was successively removed from his offices until he resigned the presidency of Colombia and died of tuberculosis in 1830. His legacy is diverse and far-reaching within Latin America and beyond. He is regarded as a hero and national and cultural icon throughout Latin America; the nations of Bolivia and Venezuela (as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) are named after him, and he has been memorialized all over the world in the form of public art or street names and in popular culture.
Early life and family
Simón Bolívar was born on 24 July 1783 in
Simón Bolívar's childhood was described by British historian
Education and first journey to Europe: 1793–1802
As a child, Bolívar was notoriously unruly
After two months there, the Real Audiencia directed that he be returned to the Palacios family home.
On 19 January 1799, Bolívar boarded the Spanish warship San Ildefonso at the port of La Guaira,[37] bound for Cádiz.[38] He arrived in Santoña, on the northern coast of Spain, in May 1799.[39] A little over a week later,[40] he arrived in Madrid and joined Esteban,[41] who found Bolívar to be "very ignorant."[42] Esteban asked Gerónimo Enrique de Uztáriz y Tovar, a Caracas native and government official, to educate Bolívar.[43][44] Bolívar moved into Uztáriz's residence in February 1800 and was educated in the Classics, literature, and social studies.[45][46]
At the same time, Mallo fell out of the Queen's favor and
Return to Venezuela and second journey to Europe: 1802–1805
Bolívar and del Toro, aged 18 and 21 respectively, were married in Madrid on 26 May 1802.
Bolívar arrived in Spain in December 1803, then traveled to Madrid to console his father-in-law.[62] In March 1804, the municipal authorities of Madrid ordered all non-residents in the city to leave to alleviate a bread shortage brought about by Spain's resumed hostilities with Britain.[63][64] Over April, Bolívar and Fernando Rodríguez del Toro , a childhood friend and relative of his wife, made their way to Paris and arrived in time for Napoleon to be proclaimed Emperor of the French on 18 May 1804.[65] They rented an apartment on the Rue Vivienne and met with other South Americans such as Carlos de Montúfar, Vicente Rocafuerte, and Simón Rodríguez, who joined Bolívar and del Toro in their apartment. While in Paris, Bolívar began a dalliance with the Countess Dervieu du Villars,[66] at whose salon he likely met the naturalists Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, who had traveled through much of Spanish America from 1799 to 1804. Bolívar allegedly discussed Spanish American independence with them.[67]
I swear before you ... that I will not rest body or soul until I have broken the chains binding us to the will of Spanish might!
Simón Bolívar, 15 August 1805[68]
In April 1805, Bolívar left Paris with Rodríguez and del Toro on a
Political and military career
By April 1806, Bolívar had returned to Paris and desired passage to Venezuela,
In 1807–08, Napoleon
By February 1810, French victories in Spain prompted the dissolution of
The three delegates first met Miranda at his London residence, despite instructions from the Supreme Junta to avoid him, and thereafter received the benefit of his connections and consultation.
Venezuela: 1811–1812
While Bolívar was in England, the Supreme Junta passed liberal economic reforms[112] and began to hold elections for representatives to a congress to be held in Caracas.[113] It had also alienated Caracas from the Venezuelan provinces of Coro, Maracaibo, and Guayana, which professed loyalty to the regency council,[114] and began hostilities with them.[115][116] Co-founding the Patriotic Society, a political organization advocating for independence from Spain, Bolívar and Miranda campaigned for and secured the latter's election to the congress.[117] The congress first met on 2 March 1811 and declared its allegiance to Ferdinand VII.[118] After it was discovered that one of the men leading the congress was a Spanish agent who had escaped with military documents, however,[119] discourse – which Bolívar was prominent in – changed decidedly in favor of independence over 3 and 4 July.[120] Finally, on 5 July, the congress declared Venezuela's independence.[121]
The declaration of independence created the first Republic of Venezuela. It had a weak base of support and enemies in conservative whites, disenfranchised people of color, and the already hostile Venezuelan provinces, which received troops and supplies from the Captaincy-Generals of Puerto Rico and Cuba.[122] On 13 July 1811, the republic raised militias to fight the pro-Spanish Royalists.[123] The congress appointed Francisco Rodríguez del Toro , the Marquis of Toro , to command these forces,[124] which opened a breach between Bolívar and Miranda. Bolívar and del Toro were close friends, while del Toro and Miranda and their families were enemies.[125] After he failed to suppress a Royalist uprising in the city of Valencia later in July,[126] the congress replaced del Toro with Miranda, and he recaptured Valencia on 13 August.[127] As a condition of assuming command of the Republican forces, Miranda had Bolívar stripped of his command of a militia unit.[128] Bolívar nonetheless fought in the Valencia campaign as part of del Toro's militia[129] and was selected by Miranda to bring news of its recapture to Caracas,[130] where he argued for more punitive and forceful campaigning against the Royalists.[131]
I left my house for the Cathedral ... and the earth began to shake with a huge roar. ... I saw the church of San Jacinto collapse on its own foundations. ... I climbed over the ruins and entered, and I immediately saw about forty persons dead or dying under the rubble. I climbed out again and I shall never forget that moment. On the top of the ruins I found Don Simón Bolívar ... He saw me and [said], "We will fight nature itself if it opposes us, and force it to obey."
Royalist historian José Domingo Díaz , quoted by John Lynch[132]
Beginning in November 1811, Royalist forces began pushing back the Republicans from the north and east.[133] On 26 March 1812, a powerful earthquake devastated Republican Venezuela; Caracas itself was almost totally destroyed.[134] Bolívar, who was still near Caracas,[135] rushed into the city to participate in the rescue of survivors and exhumation of the dead.[136] The earthquake destroyed public support for the republic, as it was believed to have been divine retribution for declaring independence from Spain.[137] By April, a Royalist army under the Spanish naval officer Juan Domingo de Monteverde overran western Venezuela. Miranda,[138] retreating east with a disintegrating army,[139] ordered Bolívar to assume command of the coastal city of Puerto Cabello and its fortress,[140] which contained Royalist prisoners and most of the republic's remaining arms and ammunition.[141]
Bolívar arrived at Puerto Cabello on 4 May 1812.[142] On 30 June, an officer of the fort's garrison loyal to the Royalists released its prisoners, armed them, and turned its cannons on Puerto Cabello.[139][143] Weakened by shelling, defections, and lack of supplies, Bolívar and his remaining troops fled for La Guaira on 6 July.[144] Believing the republic to be doomed,[139] Miranda decided to capitulate,[145] shocking Bolívar and other Republican officers.[146] After formally surrendering his command to Monteverde on 25 July,[147] Miranda made his way to La Guaira, where a group of officers including Bolívar arrested Miranda on 30 July on charges of treason against the republic.[148] La Guaira declared for the Royalists the next day and closed its port on Monteverde's orders.[149] Miranda was taken into Spanish custody and moved to a prison in Cádiz, where he died on 16 July 1816.[150]
New Granada and Venezuela: 1812–1815
Bolívar escaped La Guaira early on 31 July 1812 and rode to Caracas,[151] where he hid from arrest in the home of Esteban Fernández de León , the Marquis de Casa León . Bolívar and Casa León convinced Francisco Iturbe, a friend of the Bolívar family and of Monteverde, to intercede on Bolívar's behalf and secure escape from Venezuela for him. Iturbe persuaded Monteverde to issue Bolívar a passport for his role in Miranda's arrest,[152] and on 27 August he sailed for the island of Curaçao. He and his uncles' Francisco and José Félix Ribas arrived on 1 September. Late in October, the exiles arranged for passage west to the city of Cartagena to offer their services as military leaders to the United Provinces of New Granada against the Royalists.[153] They arrived in November and were welcomed by Manuel Rodríguez Torices, president of the Free State of Cartagena ,[154] who instructed his commanding general, Pierre Labatut, to give Bolívar a military command. Labatut, a former partisan of Miranda, begrudgingly obliged and on 1 December 1812 placed Bolívar in command of the 70-man garrison of a town on the lower Magdalena River.[155]
While en route to his posting, Bolívar issued the Cartagena Manifesto, outlining what he believed to be the causes of the Venezuelan republic's defeat and his political program. In particular, Bolívar called for the disparate New Granadan republics to help him invade Venezuela to prevent a Royalist invasion of New Granada.[156] Bolívar arrived on the Magdalena River on 21 December and,[157] in spite of orders from Labatut to not act without his direction,[158] launched an offensive that secured control of the Magdalena River from Royalist forces by 8 January 1813.[159] In February, he joined forces with Republican colonel Manuel del Castillo y Rada, who requested Bolívar's assistance with stopping a Royalist advance into New Granada from Venezuela, and captured the city of Cúcuta from the Royalists.[160]
In early March 1813, Bolívar set up his headquarters in Cúcuta and sent José Félix Ribas to request permission to invade Venezuela.[161] Though rewarded with honorary citizenship in New Granada and a promotion to the rank of brigadier general,[162] that permission did not come until 7 May because of del Castillo's opposition to the invasion. When a limited invasion was permitted, Castillo resigned his command and was succeeded by Francisco de Paula Santander.[163] On 14 May, Bolívar launched the Admirable Campaign,[164] in which he issued the Decree of War to the Death, ordering the death of all Spaniards in South America not actively aiding his forces.[165] Within six months, Bolívar pushed all the way to Caracas,[166] which he entered on 6 August,[167][168] and then drove Monteverde out of Venezuela in October.[169][170] Bolívar returned to Caracas on 14 October and was named "The Liberator" (El Libertador) by its town council,[171] a title first given to him by the citizens of the Venezuelan town of Mérida on 23 May.[172]
On 2 January 1814, Bolívar was made the dictator of a Second Republic of Venezuela,[173] which retained the weaknesses of the first republic.[174] Though all of Venezuela but Maracaibo, Coro, and Guayana was controlled by Republicans,[175][176] Bolívar only governed western Venezuela. The east was controlled by Santiago Mariño, a Venezuelan Republican who had fought Monteverde in the east throughout 1813[177][178] and was unwilling to subordinate himself to Bolívar.[179] Venezuela was economically devastated and could not support the republic's armies,[180] and people of color remained disenfranchised and thus unsupportive of the republic.[181] The republic was assailed from all sides by slave revolts and Royalist forces,[182] especially the Legion of Hell, an army of llaneros – the horsemen of the Llanos, to the south – led by the Spanish warlord José Tomás Boves.[183] Beginning in February 1814, Boves surged out of the Llanos and overwhelmed the republic, occupying Caracas on 16 July and then destroying Mariño's powerbase on 5 December at the Battle of Urica, where Boves died.[184][185]
As Boves approached Caracas, Bolívar ordered the city stripped of its gold and silver,[186] which was moved through La Guaira to Barcelona, Venezuela,[187] and from there to Cumaná.[188] Bolívar then led 20,000 of its citizens east.[186] He arrived in Barcelona on 2 August,[189] but following another defeat at the Battle of Aragua de Barcelona on 17 August 1814, he moved to Cumaná.[190] On 26 August, he sailed with Mariño to Margarita Island with the treasure. The officer in control of the island, Manuel Piar, declared Bolívar and Mariño to be traitors and forced them to return to the mainland.[191] There, Ribas also accused Bolívar and Mariño of treachery, confiscated the treasure,[192] and then exiled the two on 8 September.[193]
Bolívar arrived in Cartagena on 19 September and then met with the New Granadan congress in Tunja,[194] which tasked him with subduing the rival Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca.[195] On 12 December, Bolívar captured Cundinamarca's capital, Bogotá, and was given command of New Granada's armies in January 1815.[196] Bolívar next grappled with del Castillo, who had taken control of Cartagena.[197] Bolívar besieged the city for six weeks. His change of focus allowed the Royalist forces to regain control of the Magdalena.[198] On 8 May, Bolívar made a truce with del Castillo, resigned his command, and sailed for self-exile on Jamaica as a result of this error.[199] In July, 8,000 Spanish soldiers commanded by Spanish general Pablo Morillo landed at Santa Marta and then besieged Cartagena , which capitulated on 6 December; del Castillo was executed.[200][201]
Jamaica, Haiti, Venezuela, and New Granada: 1815–1819
Bolívar arrived in Kingston, Jamaica, on 14 May 1815 and,[202] as in his earlier exile on Curaçao, ruminated on the fall of the Venezuelan and New Granadan republics. He wrote extensively, requesting assistance from Britain and corresponding with merchants based in the Caribbean. This culminated in September 1815 with the Jamaica Letter, in which Bolívar again laid out his ideology and vision of the future of the Americas.[203] On 9 December, the Venezuelan pirate Renato Beluche brought Bolívar news from New Granada and asked him to join the Republican community in exile in Haiti.[204] Bolívar tentatively accepted and escaped assassination that night when his manservant mistakenly killed his paymaster as part of a Spanish plot.[205] He left Jamaica eight days later,[206] arrived in Les Cayes on 24 December,[207] and on 2 January 1816 was introduced to Alexandre Pétion, President of the Republic of Haiti by a mutual friend.[208] Bolívar and Pétion impressed and befriended each other and,[209] after Bolívar pledged to free every slave in the areas he occupied, Pétion gave him money and military supplies.[210][211]
Returning to Les Cayes, Bolívar held a conference with the Republican leaders in Haiti and was made supreme leader with Mariño as his chief of staff.[212] The Republicans departed Les Cayes for Venezuela on 31 March 1816 and followed the Antilles eastward.[213] After a delay to allow a lover of Bolívar's to join the fleet, it arrived on 2 May at Margarita Island, controlled by Republican commander Juan Bautista Arismendi.[214] Bolívar next moved to the mainland, where he declared the emancipation of all slaves and annulled of the Decree of War to the Death.[215][e] He seized Carúpano on 31 May and sent Mariño and Piar into Guayana to build their own army,[218] then took and held Ocumare de la Costa from 6 to 14 July, when it was recaptured by the Royalists.[219][220] Bolívar fled by sea to Güiria where, on 22 August, he was deposed by Mariño and Venezuelan Republican José Francisco Bermúdez.[221]
Bolívar returned to Haiti by early September,[222] where Pétion again agreed to assist him.[223] In his absence, the Republican leaders scattered across Venezuela, concentrating in the Llanos, and became disunited warlords.[224] Unwilling to recognize Mariño's leadership, [225] Arismendi wrote to Bolívar and dispatched New Granadan Republican Francisco Antonio Zea to convince him to return. Bolívar and Zea set sail for Venezuela on 21 December with Luis Brión, a Dutch merchant,[226] and arrived ten days later at Barcelona. There, Bolívar announced his return and called for a congress for a new, third republic.[227] He wrote to the Republican leaders, especially José Antonio Páez, who controlled most of the western Llanos, to unite under his leadership.[228][229] On 8 January 1817, Bolívar marched towards Caracas but was defeated at the Battle of Clarines and pursued to Barcelona by a larger Royalist force.[230] At Bolívar's request, Mariño arrived on 8 February with Bermúdez, who then reconciled with Bolívar, and forced a Royalist withdrawal.[231]
Even with their combined forces, however, Bolívar, Mariño, and Bermúdez could not hold Barcelona.
On 17 July 1817,
Gran Colombia: 1819–1830
The congress met in Angostura on 15 February 1819.[257] There, Bolívar gave a speech in which he advocated for a centralized government modeled on the British government and racial equality,[258] and relinquished civil authority to the congress.[259] On 16 February, the congress elected Bolívar as president and Zea as vice president.[256][260] On 27 February,[261] Bolívar left Angostura to rejoin Páez in the west and resumed campaigning against Morillo, albeit ineffectively.[256][262] In May, as the annual wet season was beginning in the Llanos, Bolívar met with his officers and revealed his intention to invade and liberate New Granada from Royalist occupation,[263] which he had prepared for by sending Santander to build up Republican forces in Casanare Province in August 1818.[264][265] On 27 May,[266] Bolívar marched with more than 2,000 soldiers toward the Andes[267][268] and left Páez, Mariño, Urdaneta, and Bermúdez to tie down Morillo's forces in Venezuela.[269]
Bolívar entered Casanare Province with his army on 4 June 1819,[270] then met up with Santander at Tame, Arauca, on 11 June.[271] The combined Republican force reached the Eastern Range of the Andes on 22 June and began a grueling crossing.[272] On 6 July, the Republicans descended from the Andes at Socha and into the plains of New Granada.[273] After a brief convalescence, the Republicans made rapid progress against the forces of Spanish colonel José María Barreiro Manjón until, on 7 August, the Royalists were routed at the Battle of Boyacá. On 10 August, Bolívar entered Bogotá, which the Spanish officials had hastily abandoned,[274][275] and captured the viceregal treasury and armories.[276] After sending forces to secure Republican control of central New Granada,[277] Bolívar paraded through Bogotá on 18 September with Santander.[278]
Desiring to merge New Granada and Venezuela into a "greater republic of Colombia", Bolívar first established a provisional government in Bogotá with Santander,[279] and then left to resume campaigning against the Royalists in Venezuela on 20 September 1819.[280] En route, he learned that Zea had been replaced as vice president in September 1819 by Arismendi, who was conspiring with Mariño against Urdaneta and Bermúdez. Bolívar arrived in Angostura on 11 December and, by being conciliatory, defused the plot.[281] He then proposed the merging of New Granada and Venezuela to the congress on 14 December,[282] which was approved. On 17 December, the congress issued a decree creating the Republic of Colombia, including the regions of Venezuela, New Granada, and the still Spanish-controlled Real Audiencia of Quito, and elected Bolívar and Zea president and vice president respectively.[283]
After Christmas Day, 1819,[284] Bolívar left Angostura to direct campaigns against Royalist forces along the Caribbean coasts of Venezuela and New Granada.[285] He met with Santander in Bogotá in March 1820, then rode to Cúcuta and inspected Republican forces in northern Colombia over April and May 1820.[286] Meanwhile, Morillo's military and political position was fatally undermined by the mutiny of Spanish soldiers in Cádiz on 1 January , which forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution in March.[287][288] News of the mutiny and its consequences arrived in Colombia in March and was followed by orders from Spain to Morillo to publicize the constitution and negotiate a peace that would return Colombia to the Spanish Empire. Bolívar and Morillo, seeking to gain leverage over each other,[289] delayed talks until 21 November, when Colombian and Royalist delegates met in Trujillo, Venezuela.[290] The delegates completed two treaties on 25 November, establishing a six-month truce, a prisoner exchange, and basic rights for combatants. Bolívar and Morillo signed the treaties on 25 and 26 November, then met the next day at Santa Ana de Trujillo .[291][292] After this meeting, Morillo turned his command over to Spanish general Miguel de la Torre and departed for Spain on 17 December.[293]
In February 1821, as Bolívar was traveling from Bogotá to Cúcuta in anticipation of the opening of a new congress there,[294] he learned that Royalist-controlled Maracaibo had defected to Colombia and been occupied by Urdaneta.[295][296] La Torre protested to Bolívar, who refused to return Maracaibo, leading to a renewal of hostilities on 28 April.[297] Over May and June, Colombia's armies made rapid progress until, on 24 June, Bolívar and Páez decisively defeated La Torre at the Battle of Carabobo.[298][299] All Royalist forces remaining in Venezuela were eliminated by August 1823.[300] Bolívar entered Caracas in triumph on 29 June,[301] and issued a decree on 16 July dividing Venezuela into three military zones governed by Páez, Bermúdez, and Mariño.[302] Bolívar then met with the Congress of Cúcuta,[303] which had ratified the formation of Gran Colombia and elected him as president and Santander as vice president in September. Bolívar accepted and was sworn in on 3 October, although he protested the establishment of a precedent of military leaders as head of the Colombian state.[304]
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia: 1821–1826
After the Battle of Carabobo, Bolívar turned his attention south, to
in southern Colombia on 7 April 1822.To the south, Sucre, who had been trapped in Guayaquil by Royalist advances from Quito,[315] now advanced, decisively defeated the Royalists at the Battle of Pichincha on 24 May 1822, and occupied Quito.[313][316] On 6 June, Pasto surrendered,[317] and ten days later Bolívar paraded through Quito with Sucre.[318] He also met the Ecuadorian Republican Manuela Sáenz, the wife of a British merchant, with whom he began a lasting affair.[319] From Quito, Bolívar traveled to Guayaquil in anticipation of a meeting with San Martín to discuss the city's status and to rally support for its annexation by Colombia.[320] When San Martín arrived in Guayaquil on 26 July,[321] Bolívar had already secured Guayaquil for Colombia,[322] and the two-day Guayaquil Conference produced no agreement between Bolívar and San Martín. Ill, politically isolated, and disillusioned, San Martín resigned from his offices and went into exile.[323][324]
Over the rest of 1822, Bolívar traveled around Ecuador to complete its annexation while dispatching officers to suppress repeated rebellions in Pasto and resisting calls to return to Bogotá or Venezuela.
In November 1823, Riva Agüero, who plotted with the Royalists against Bolívar, was betrayed by his officers to Bolívar and exiled from Peru.[334] While Bolívar was bedridden with fever over the first two months of 1824, Tagle defected to the Royalists with the garrison and city of Callao and briefly took Lima.[335] In response, the Peruvian congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824. Bolívar moved to northern Peru in March and began assembling an army.[333][336] His repeated demands for additional men and money strained his relationship with Santander.[337]
In May 1823, conservative Royalist general
On 24 October, Bolívar received a letter from Santander informing him that because he had accepted the dictatorship of Peru the Colombian congress had stripped him of his military and civil authority in favor of Sucre and Santander, respectively.[342] Although indignant and resentful of Santander, Bolívar wrote to him on 10 November to communicate his acquiescence[343] and reoccupied Lima on 5 December 1824.[344] On 9 December, Sucre decisively defeated La Serna's Royalists at the Battle of Ayacucho and accepted the surrender of all Royalist forces in Peru. The garrison of Callao and Olañeta ignored the surrender. Shortly after arriving in Lima, Bolívar began a siege of Callao that lasted until January 1826,[345][346] and sent Sucre into Upper Peru to eliminate Olañeta. However, Oleñeta was killed at the Battle of Tumusla prior to Sucre's arrival. With Irish volunteer Francisco Burdett O'Connor serving as his second in command, Sucre completed the liberation of Upper Peru in April 1825.[347]
In early 1825, Bolívar resigned from his offices in Colombia and Peru, but neither nation's congress accepted his resignation; on 10 February 1825, the Peruvian congress extended his dictatorship for another year. Accepting the extension,[348] Bolívar settled into governing Peru and passing reforms that were largely not carried out, such as a school system based on the principles of English educator Joseph Lancaster that was managed by Simón Rodríguez.[349] In April 1825, Bolívar began a tour of southern Peru that took him to the cities of Arequipa and Cuzco by August. As Bolívar approached Upper Peru, a congress gathered in the city of Chuquisaca (now Sucre); on 6 August, it declared the region to be the nation of Bolivia, named Bolívar President, and asked him to write a constitution for Bolivia.[350] Bolívar arrived in Potosí on 5 October and met with two Argentine agents, Carlos María de Alvear and José Miguel Díaz Vélez, who tried without success to convince him to intervene in the Cisplatine War against the Empire of Brazil.[351]
From Potosí, Bolívar traveled to Chuquisaca and appointed Sucre to govern Bolivia on 29 December 1825;[352] he departed for Peru on 1 January 1826.[353] Bolívar arrived in Lima on 10 February and dispatched his draft of the Bolivian constitution to Sucre on 12 May.[354] That constitution was ratified with modification by the Bolivian congress in July 1826.[355] Peru, whose elites chafed at Bolívar's rule and the presence of his soldiers, was also induced to accept a modified version of Bolívar's constitution on 16 August.[356] In Venezuela, Páez revolted against Santander, and in Panama, a congress of American nations organized by Bolívar convened without his attendance and produced no change in the hemispheric status quo. On 3 September, responding to pleas for his return to Colombia, Bolívar departed Peru and left it under a governing council led by Bolivian general Andrés de Santa Cruz.[357]
Final years: 1826–1830
Bolívar arrived in Guayaquil on 13 September 1826 and heard complaints against Santander's governance from the people of Guayaquil and Quito, who declared him their dictator.[358] From Ecuador, he continued north and heard more complaints, promoted civil and military officers, and commuted prison sentences.[359] As he approached Bogotá, Bolívar was met by Santander, who hoped to persuade Bolívar to his cause in the conflict with Páez. Although Santander was annoyed at Bolívar for his desire to return to power and ratify a version of the Bolivian constitution in Colombia, they reconciled and agreed that Bolívar would resume the presidency of Colombia; congress had reelected them to a second four-year term beginning on 2 January 1827. Bolívar arrived in Bogotá on 14 November 1826.[360]
On 25 November, Bolívar left Bogotá with an army supplied by Santander and arrived at Puerto Cabello on 31 December,
Bolívar departed Venezuela to return to Bogotá in July 1827. He arrived on 10 September with an army he had gathered at Cartagena and secured the calling of a new congress to meet at the city of Ocaña in early 1828 to modify the Colombian constitution. The elections for this congress were held in November 1827 and, as Bolívar declined to campaign because he didn't wish to be perceived as personally influencing the elections, were very favorable to his political opponents.[366] In January 1828, Bolívar was joined in Bogotá by Sáenz,[367] but on 16 March 1828 he left the capital after being informed of a Spanish-backed rebellion in Venezuela. As that revolt was crushed before he arrived, Bolívar turned his attention to the occupation of Cartagena by José Prudencio Padilla, a New Granadan admiral and Santander loyalist. Padilla's rebellion was also crushed before Bolívar arrived, however, and he was arrested and imprisoned in Bogotá. As the Convention of Ocaña opened on 9 April, Bolívar based himself at Bucaramanga to monitor its proceedings through his aides.[368]
The convention appeared likely to adopt a federalist system. To prevent this, on 11 June 1828 Bolívar's allies staged a walkout, leaving the convention without a quorum.[369] Two days later, Pedro Alcántara Herrán, a Bolívar loyalist and the governor of New Granada, called a meeting of the city's elite that denounced the Convention of Ocaña and called on Bolívar to assume absolute power in Colombia. Bolívar returned to Bogotá on 24 June and on 27 August assumed supreme power as the "president-liberator" of Colombia, abolished the office of the vice president, and assigned Santander to a diplomatic posting in Washington, D.C. On 25 September 1828, a group of young liberals that included Santander's secretary made an attempt to assassinate Bolívar and overthrow his government. The attempt was thwarted by Sáenz, who bought time for Bolívar to escape as the assassins entered the Palacio de San Carlos, and the Colombian Army. Bolívar spent the night hiding under a bridge until soldiers loyal to his regime rescued him.[370]
In the aftermath of the attempted coup, Santander and the conspirators were arrested. Bolívar, depressed and ill, considered resigning from politics and pardoning the conspirators, but was dissuaded from this by his officers. Padilla, though uninvolved with the attempted coup, was executed for treason for his earlier rebellion; Santander, whom Bolívar thought responsible for the plot, was pardoned but exiled from Colombia.[371] In December 1828, Bolívar left Bogotá to respond to Peru's intervention in Bolivia and invasion of Ecuador and a revolt in Popayán and Pasto led by José María Obando. He left behind a council of ministers led by Urdaneta to govern Colombia and announced that a congress would convene in January 1830 to devise a new constitution. Over 1829, Obando was defeated by Colombian general José María Córdova at Bolívar's direction in January and then pardoned, while Sucre and Venezuelan general Juan José Flores defeated the Peruvians at the Battle of Tarqui in February, leading to an armistice in July and then the Treaty of Guayaquil in September.[372]
While Bolívar was away, Urdaneta and the council of ministers planned with French envoys to have a member of the
Death and burial
Determined to go into exile, Bolívar, who had given away or lost his fortune over his career, sold most of his remaining possessions and departed from Bogotá on 8 May 1830.[376] He traveled down the Magdalena to Cartagena, where he arrived by the end of June to wait for a ship to take him to England.[377] On 1 July, Bolívar was informed that Sucre had been assassinated near Pasto while en route to Quito, and wrote to Flores to ask him to avenge Sucre.[378] In September, Urdaneta installed a conservative government in Bogotá and asked Bolívar to return, but he refused.[379] With his health deteriorating and no ship forthcoming, Bolívar was moved by his staff to Barranquilla in October and then, at the invitation of a Spanish landowner in the area, to the Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino near Santa Marta. There, on 17 December 1830, at the age of 47, Bolívar died of tuberculosis.[380]
Bolívar's body, dressed in a borrowed shirt, was interred in the Cathedral Basilica of Santa Marta on 20 December 1830.[381] In 1842, Páez secured the repatriation of Bolívar's remains, which were paraded through Caracas and then laid to rest in its cathedral in December together with his wife and parents; Bolívar's heart remained in Santa Marta. His remains were moved again in October 1876 into the National Pantheon of Venezuela in Caracas, created that year by President Antonio Guzmán Blanco.[382]
Bolívar's death has been the subject of conspiracy theories advanced by the United Socialist Party of Venezuela. In January 2008, President Hugo Chávez set up a commission to investigate his claim that Bolívar had been poisoned by "New Granada traitors."[383][384] The commission exhumed Bolívar's remains on 16 July 2010.[385] The results, made public on 26 July 2011, were inconclusive; Vice President of Venezuela Elías Jaua announced that the commission could not prove Chávez's claim.[386][387][388] Chávez continued to claim that Bolívar had been assassinated via arsenic poisoning, citing a paper by infectious disease specialist Paul Auwaerter. Following Chávez's remarks, Auwaerter stated that the arsenic likely came from medicines Bolívar had ingested to treat his illnesses.[386][389][390]
Personal beliefs
Bolívar's personal beliefs were liberal and
Throughout his political career, Bolívar concerned himself with the construction of liberal democracy in Latin America and the region's place in the Atlantic world.
Legacy
Bolívar is the preeminent symbol of Latin America and the focus of what could seem almost unrivaled posthumous attention, seen from his own times forward as a force now for liberalism or other forms of modernity, now for old regime values and authoritarianism, now for a mix of the two, with the debate over the meaning of his figure having no end in sight.
Robert T. Conn, Bolívar's Afterlife in the Americas[406]
Bolívar has had an immense legacy, becoming the essential personality of Latin America.[406][407] The currencies of Venezuela and Bolivia—the bolívar and boliviano respectively—are named after Bolívar.[408][409] In the English-speaking world, Bolívar is known as Latin America's George Washington.[410] He has been memorialized across the world in literature, public monuments, and historiography, and paid tribute to in the names of towns, cities, provinces, and other people.[411][412] The Quinta near Santa Marta has been preserved as a museum to Bolívar[413] and the house in which he was born was opened as a museum and archive of his papers on 5 July 1921.[414] In 1978, UNESCO created the International Simón Bolívar Prize "to reward an activity of outstanding merit in accordance with the ideals of Simón Bolívar."[415]
Initial historical evaluations of Bolívar were at first negative, consisting of criticism of his conduct of the war, execution of Piar, betrayal of Miranda, and authoritarianism.
See also
References
- ^ Styled as Supreme Political and Military Authority of the Peruvian Republic.[1]
- ^ Styled as Liberator President of the Republic of Colombia, Liberator of Peru, and Charged with the Supreme Command of it. The term "president" was not in common use at the time of Bolívar's designation. Whether this then makes Bolívar not the first president is a minor source of academic dispute.[2]
- ^ English: /ˈbɒlɪvər, -vɑːr/ BOL-iv-ər, -ar;[3] US: /ˈboʊlɪvɑːr/ BOH-liv-ar;[4] Spanish: [siˈmom boˈliβaɾ] ⓘ. In isolation, Simón is pronounced as Spanish [siˈmon], and that is the pronunciation in the recording.
- ^ Biographers disagree on the exact date Miranda arrived in Venezuela in December 1810. Arana says 10 December,[107] Lynch says 11 December,[108] Masur and Langley say 12 December,[109][110] Slatta and de Grummond say 13 December.[111]
- ^ Masur, Langley, and Arana state that Bolívar issued his proclamation of emancipation in early June.[216] Slatta, de Grummond, and Lynch state that it was issued in July.[217]
Notes
- Congress of Peru. 22 June 1827. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
- ^ "Se enciende el debate por el cargo de Simón Bolívar" [Debate Ignites over Simón Bolívar's Position]. El Día (in Spanish). Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
- ^ "Bolívar". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
- ^ "Bolívar, Simón". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 20, 22; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 311; Lynch 2006, p. 2; Langley 2009, p. 4; Arana 2013, pp. 6–8.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 4.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 20; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 10; Arana 2013, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 20; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 10–11; Langley 2009, p. 4.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 20; Langley 2009, p. 4; Arana 2013, pp. 7, 17.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 7.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 311; Langley 2009, p. xix; Arana 2013, p. 21.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 18.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 23; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 18.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 11.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 22–23; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 11–12; Lynch 2006, p. 16; Arana 2013, pp. 7–8, 22.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 12; Langley 2009, p. xix.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 23; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 24.
- ^ a b Arana 2013, p. 25.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 23; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 13; Arana 2013, p. 24.
- ^ a b Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 13.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 24; Arana 2013, p. 25.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 17.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 25.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 23–24; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, p. 22.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 23–24; Langley 2009, p. 9; Arana 2013, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 32.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 25; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 14; Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 32.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 32.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 25; Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 33.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 25; Arana 2013, p. 34.
- ^ a b Masur 1969, pp. 24–25; Lynch 2006, pp. 16–17; Arana 2013, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 27; Lynch 2006, p. 17; Arana 2013, pp. 36–37.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 27; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 17; Lynch 2006, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 37.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 37.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 17; Arana 2013, p. 42.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 27; Lynch 2006, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 38.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 37.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Lynch 2006, p. 18.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 43.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Lynch 2006, p. 19; Arana 2013, p. 43.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 28; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Langley 2009, p. 13; Arana 2013, p. 44.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 44.
- ^ Cardozo Uzcátegui 2011, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Cardozo Uzcátegui 2011, pp. 14, 19.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 28; Langley 2009, p. 13; Arana 2013, p. 44.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Arana 2013, p. 46.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 30; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 18; Arana 2013, p. 46.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 30–31; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Langley 2009, p. 13.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 30; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 18–19; Arana 2013, pp. 46–47.
- ^ a b c Lynch 2006, p. 20.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 20; Arana 2013, p. 47.
- ^ Cardozo Uzcátegui 2011, p. 18.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Arana 2013, p. 47.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 31; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Lynch 2006, p. 20.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 20; Arana 2013, p. 48.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 48.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 19; Lynch 2006, p. 20; Arana 2013, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 31; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 19–20; Lynch 2006, p. 21; Langley 2009, p. 14; Arana 2013, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 51.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 19–20; Lynch 2006, p. 22; Arana 2013, p. 51.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 33–34; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 20; Lynch 2006, p. 22; Langley 2009, p. 15; Arana 2013, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 52.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 20; Langley 2009, p. 15.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 20; Arana 2013, p. 52.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 23; Arana 2013, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 36–37; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 21–22; Lynch 2006, p. 23; Langley 2009, p. 15; Arana 2013, pp. 54, 57–58.
- ^ Bushnell 2003, p. 114; Brown 2009, p. 4.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 24; Lynch 2006, p. 25; Arana 2013, p. 61.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 41; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 24; Lynch 2006, p. 25; Arana 2013, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 24; Arana 2013, p. 62.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 41; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 24; Lynch 2006, p. 26; Arana 2013, p. 63.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 41–42; Arana 2013, pp. 63, 65.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 24; Lynch 2006, p. 26; Arana 2013, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 27.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 55–56; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 30; Lynch 2006, p. 39; Arana 2013, p. 70.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 25; Arana 2013, p. 71.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 25; Lynch 2006, p. 39; Arana 2013, p. 72.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 18.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 26; Arana 2013, p. 77.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 33–34; Lynch 2006, p. 41; Arana 2013, p. 80.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 41; Arana 2013, pp. 77, 81.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 61–62; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 26–27; Lynch 2006, p. 44; Arana 2013, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 31–32; Lynch 2006, p. 45; Arana 2013, p. 79.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 45–46; Arana 2013, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 33–34; Lynch 2006, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 65–66; Lynch 2006, p. 46; Arana 2013, p. 81.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 35; Lynch 2006, p. 47; Arana 2013, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 35; Lynch 2006, p. 47; Arana 2013, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 67; Arana 2013, p. 84.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 68–69; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 36–37; Arana 2013, pp. 84–86.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 48; Arana 2013, p. 86.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 85.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 38; Lynch 2006, p. 48.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 38; Lynch 2006, p. 48; Arana 2013, p. 87.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 38.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 72–73; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 38; Lynch 2006, pp. 48–49; Langley 2009, p. 28; Arana 2013, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 49–50; Arana 2013, p. 92.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 39–40; Lynch 2006, pp. 51–52; Arana 2013, pp. 88–90.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 77; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 40; Lynch 2006, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 50; Langley 2009, pp. 30–31; Arana 2013, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 53; Arana 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 41; Langley 2009, p. 31; Arana 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 41; Lynch 2006, p. 53; Arana 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 80–81; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 41; Lynch 2006, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 41–42; Lynch 2006, p. 54; Arana 2013, pp. 96–97.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 95.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 54.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 85.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 32.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 42.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 54; Langley 2009, p. 31.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 87.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 83; Langley 2009, p. 31.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 84; Langley 2009, p. 31.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 46; Arana 2013, p. 97.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 86; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 46.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 100.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 87–88; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 47; Lynch 2006, p. 55; Langley 2009, p. 33; Arana 2013, pp. 100–101.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 88; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 47; Arana 2013, p. 101.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 88–91.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 56.
- ^ Arana 2013, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 58; Arana 2013, p. 100.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 91; Arana 2013, p. 104.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 91.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 91; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 48; Langley 2009, p. 34; Langley 2009, p. 34; Arana 2013, p. 104.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 92; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 48, 52; Lynch 2006, p. 58; Arana 2013, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 92; Arana 2013, p. 105.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 93; Arana 2013, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 1.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 55; Lynch 2006, p. 59; Langley 2009, pp. 35–36; Arana 2013, pp. 107–109.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 96.
- ^ Arana 2013, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 95–96; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 56; Lynch 2006, p. 59; Arana 2013, pp. 109–110.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 57.
- ^ a b c McFarlane 2014, p. 93.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 97–98; Lynch 2006, p. 60; Arana 2013, p. 112.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 57; Arana 2013, p. 112.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 57; Lynch 2006, p. 60; Arana 2013, p. 112.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 100; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 58; Arana 2013, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 101; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 58–59; Arana 2013.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 103; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 63; Arana 2013, p. 118.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 64; Lynch 2006, p. 61; Arana 2013, p. 119.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 61; Arana 2013, p. 118.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 103–104; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 64–65; Lynch 2006, pp. 61–62; Arana 2013, pp. 120–122.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 104–105; Lynch 2006, p. 62; Arana 2013, p. 122.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 105; Langley 2009, p. 38.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 105; Arana 2013, p. 122.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 105–106; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 67; Lynch 2006, pp. 62–63; Arana 2013, pp. 124–126.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 67; Langley 2009, p. 42; Arana 2013, pp. 126–128.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 107, 112; Arana 2013, p. 128.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 71; Arana 2013, pp. 129, 132.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 113–115; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 70; Lynch 2006, pp. 66–68; Arana 2013, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 116.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 116; Lynch 2006, p. 69; Arana 2013, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 116–117; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 71–72; Lynch 2006, pp. 69–70; Arana 2013, pp. 132–133.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 118–119; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 72–73; Arana 2013, pp. 136–138.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 73–74; Lynch 2006, p. 70.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 119; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 74; Arana 2013, p. 138.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 119–120; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 74–76; Lynch 2006, pp. 70–71; Arana 2013, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 75.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 124; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 77; Lynch 2006, p. 73; Langley 2009, p. 46; Arana 2013, pp. 142–143.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 129; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 75; Lynch 2006, p. 75; Arana 2013, p. 146.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 120.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 82–84; Lynch 2006, p. 84.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 123.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 84–85; Lynch 2006, p. 79.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 122–123; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 76; Lynch 2006, p. 72; Arana 2013, p. 140.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 77.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 125.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 77–78.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 122.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 138–139; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 75, 85; Lynch 2006, pp. 76–78.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 140; Langley 2009, p. 47; Arana 2013, p. 150.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 135; Langley 2009, p. 49.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 86; Langley 2009, pp. 48–49; Arana 2013, p. 153.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 85–87, 97; Lynch 2006, pp. 81–82; Arana 2013, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 100–104, 106–112; Langley 2009, p. 50; Arana 2013, pp. 156–159, 163–164.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 126–129.
- ^ a b Masur 1969, p. 161; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 106; Lynch 2006, p. 86; Arana 2013, p. 159.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 107.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 162.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 108; Arana 2013, p. 160.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 161–162; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 108; Lynch 2006, pp. 86–87; Arana 2013, p. 161.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 108–109; Lynch 2006, p. 87.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 109; Lynch 2006, p. 87; Arana 2013, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 163; Arana 2013, p. 163.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 165–166; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 110–111; Lynch 2006, p. 88.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 167; Lynch 2006, p. 89; Langley 2009, p. 54.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 111–113; Lynch 2006, pp. 88–89; Arana 2013, p. 168.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 168–170; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 113–114; Lynch 2006, pp. 89–90; Langley 2009, p. 55; Arana 2013, pp. 169–170.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 114; Lynch 2006, pp. 89–90; Arana 2013, pp. 169–170.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 170–171; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 114; Langley 2009, p. 55; Arana 2013, pp. 170–171.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 173–174; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 115; Lynch 2006, p. 90; Arana 2013.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 138.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 116; Lynch 2006, p. 90.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 184–185, 190; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 124–127; Lynch 2006, pp. 92, 95; Langley 2009, pp. 55–57; Arana 2013, pp. 174–176.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 183; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 129; Lynch 2006, pp. 96–97; Arana 2013, p. 177.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 191; Lynch 2006, p. 97; Arana 2013, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 129; Langley 2009, p. 59; Arana 2013, p. 178.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 192; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 130; Lynch 2006, p. 97; Langley 2009, p. 59; Arana 2013, pp. 178–179.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 192–193; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 130; Arana 2013, p. 179.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 193; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 130; Lynch 2006, p. 97; Arana 2013, p. 179.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 313.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 194–195; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 131–132; Arana 2013, p. 179.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 195; Lynch 2006, p. 100; Arana 2013, p. 183.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 137–138; Lynch 2006, p. 100; Arana 2013, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 197–198; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 141–142; Lynch 2006, p. 100; Langley 2009, p. 60; Arana 2013, p. 186.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 197; Langley 2009, p. 60; Arana 2013, p. 186.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 142; Lynch 2006, p. 100.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 197; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 198–200; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 141–144; Lynch 2006, p. 100.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 314.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 202; Lynch 2006, p. 101; Arana 2013, p. 189.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 147–148; Arana 2013, p. 190.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 203; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 146; Lynch 2006, p. 101; Arana 2013, p. 189.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 146; Arana 2013, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 203; Arana 2013, p. 191.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 203; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 150–151; Arana 2013, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 151–152; Lynch 2006, p. 102.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 146–147; Lynch 2006, p. 102; Arana 2013, pp. 191–192.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 313–315.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 152; Arana 2013, p. 192.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 208–209; Arana 2013, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 153; Lynch 2006, p. 102; Arana 2013, p. 193.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 210; Arana 2013, p. 195.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 207–208; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 153; Lynch 2006, pp. 102–103; Arana 2013, p. 193.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 315.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 210; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 154.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 211; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 155; Lynch 2006, pp. 103–104; Arana 2013, pp. 195–196.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 211, 213; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 153–154, 156; Arana 2013, pp. 200–202.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 213–214; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 156; Lynch 2006, p. 104; Arana 2013, p. 202.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 217; Lynch 2006, p. 106; Arana 2013, p. 197.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 217–218; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 158–160; Arana 2013, pp. 197–199.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 220; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 160; Arana 2013, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 160.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 215; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 157; Arana 2013, p. 201.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 317–318.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 163.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 163; Lynch 2006, pp. 110–112.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 319.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 113–114; Arana 2013, p. 207.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 231–232; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 171–172; Lynch 2006, p. 115; Arana 2013, pp. 209–211.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 317.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 234–235; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 173; Lynch 2006, p. 116; Arana 2013, pp. 211–212.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 321–322.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 235–237, 243; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 174–180; Lynch 2006, pp. 116–117; Arana 2013, pp. 212–217.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 244; Lynch 2006, p. 117.
- ^ a b c McFarlane 2014, p. 325.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 245; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 180; Lynch 2006, p. 119; Arana 2013, p. 222.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 246–253; Lynch 2006, pp. 120–122; Arana 2013, pp. 222–225.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 246; Arana 2013, p. 222.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 254; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 180; Arana 2013, p. 225.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 255.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 255–258; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 180–181; Lynch 2006, p. 126; Arana 2013, pp. 226–228.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 263; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 183; Lynch 2006, p. 127; Arana 2013, pp. 228–229.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 176; Lynch 2006, p. 124.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 324–325.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 183; Lynch 2006, p. 127.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 127; Langley 2009, p. 75; Arana 2013, p. 228.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 326–327.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 127; Arana 2013, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 184; Arana 2013, p. 230.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 264; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 184; Lynch 2006, p. 128; Arana 2013, pp. 230–231.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 166; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 185.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 128; Arana 2013, p. 232.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 268–273; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 188–193; Lynch 2006, pp. 128–130; Langley 2009, p. 75; Arana 2013, pp. 232–235.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 327–328.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 193; Lynch 2006, p. 130; Arana 2013, pp. 235, 237.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 276; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 193, 195; Lynch 2006, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 280; Lynch 2006, p. 130; Arana 2013, pp. 238–239.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 277, 280; Lynch 2006, p. 131; Arana 2013, pp. 240–241.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 195; Lynch 2006, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 282–283; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 196–197; Lynch 2006, pp. 132–133; Arana 2013, pp. 245–246.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 283; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 197–198; Arana 2013, p. 246.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 284; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 198; Lynch 2006, p. 134; Arana 2013, pp. 246–247.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 290; Arana 2013, p. 247.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 290; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 200–201; Arana 2013, p. 247.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 201–202; Lynch 2006, pp. 134, 136.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 291–292; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 204; Lynch 2006, p. 136; Arana 2013, pp. 247–248.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 368.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 292–297; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 204–209; Lynch 2006, pp. 136–137; Arana 2013, pp. 248, 253–254.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 297; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 209; Arana 2013, p. 254.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 297; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 209–210; Lynch 2006, p. 137; Arana 2013, pp. 254–255.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 388–389.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 211; Lynch 2006, p. 138; Arana 2013, p. 257.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 303; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 216.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 302–303; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 216; Lynch 2006, p. 139.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, p. 391.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 304; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 218; Arana 2013, p. 263.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 304–307; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 218–220; Lynch 2006, pp. 139–140; Arana 2013, pp. 263–265.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 391–392.
- ^ a b McFarlane 2014, p. 392.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 221; Arana 2013, p. 267.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 141–142; Arana 2013, p. 266.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 221; Arana 2013, p. 271.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 308–310; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 221; Lynch 2006, pp. 145–146; Arana 2013, p. 271.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 313–314; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 224; Lynch 2006, p. 167.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 167.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 302, 319; Lynch 2006, pp. 138–139, 168.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 317; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 222; Lynch 2006, p. 167.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 213–215; Langley 2009, p. 79; Arana 2013, pp. 271–277.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 317; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 224–225; Lynch 2006, p. 167; Arana 2013, p. 278.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 312; Lynch 2006, p. 146.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 321; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 221; Lynch 2006, pp. 146, 168; Arana 2013, pp. 278–279.
- ^ a b McFarlane 2014, p. 393.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 323–325; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 226; Lynch 2006, p. 169; Arana 2013, pp. 281–283.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 320; Lynch 2006, p. 168; Arana 2013, p. 280.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 325; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 226–227; Lynch 2006, p. 170; Langley 2009, pp. 80–81; Arana 2013, pp. 28–88.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 325–326; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 227.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 327; Lynch 2006, pp. 170–171; Arana 2013, pp. 287–288.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 327; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 228, 230; Lynch 2006, pp. 171, 178–179; Langley 2009, p. 81; Arana 2013, pp. 289–290.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 328, 330–331; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 234; Lynch 2006, pp. 171–172; Arana 2013, p. 292.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 331; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 235; Arana 2013, pp. 295–296.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 331; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 235; Lynch 2006, p. 172; Langley 2009, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 331, 338–341; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 235–237; Lynch 2006, pp. 173–175; Langley 2009, p. 82; Arana 2013, pp. 295–305.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 394–395.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 343–345; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 240–241; Lynch 2006, pp. 175–176; Arana 2013, pp. 306–307.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 243; Arana 2013, pp. 305, 308.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 395–396.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 353; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 241; Lynch 2006, p. 183.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 354–356; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 242–243; Arana 2013, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 356; Lynch 2006, p. 184.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 243–244; Lynch 2006, p. 185; Langley 2009, p. 86; Arana 2013, pp. 310–311.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 243–244; Lynch 2006, p. 185; Langley 2009, pp. 86–87; Arana 2013, p. 312.
- ^ a b McFarlane 2014, p. 398.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 362; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 244; Lynch 2006, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 364–366; Lynch 2006, pp. 186–187; Arana 2013, pp. 315, 317–318.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 368, 370; Lynch 2006, pp. 189–190.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 372–375; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 247–250; Lynch 2006, pp. 191–193; Langley 2009, p. 88; Arana 2013, pp. 320, 326–328.
- ^ a b McFarlane 2014, p. 402.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 375; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 250.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 376; Arana 2013, p. 329.
- ^ a b Masur 1969, p. 376; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 251; Lynch 2006, p. 193; Arana 2013, p. 329.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 252; Lynch 2006, p. 193.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 252; Arana 2013, p. 331.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 378–379, 383; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 252–256; Lynch 2006, pp. 194–195; Arana 2013, pp. 331–335.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 402–405.
- ^ McFarlane 2014, pp. 404–405.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 381–382; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 256–257; Lynch 2006, pp. 194–195; Arana 2013, p. 339.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 195–196, 208; Arana 2013, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 386–388; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 257; Lynch 2006, pp. 195–196, 199; Arana 2013, pp. 343–346.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 388–390; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 257; Lynch 2006, p. 200.
- ^ "Decreto Supremo de 29 de diciembre de 1825". Gaceta Oficial del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (in Spanish). Government of Bolivia. 19 December 1825. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 391–392; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 261–262; Lynch 2006, p. 201.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 201; Arana 2013, pp. 348, 350.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 394; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 264.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 406; Lynch 2006, pp. 209, 211; Arana 2013, pp. 356–357.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 407, 414–415, 423–426; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 265–267; Lynch 2006, pp. 213–215, 222–223; Arana 2013, pp. 353–358.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 426; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 268; Arana 2013, pp. 362–364.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 421, 426; Lynch 2006, p. 218; Arana 2013, pp. 363–364.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 427–428; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 268–269; Lynch 2006, pp. 218–219; Arana 2013, pp. 364–365.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 270; Arana 2013, p. 367.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 430–431; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 270; Lynch 2006, pp. 225–226; Langley 2009, p. 99; Arana 2013, pp. 367–369.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 433–435; Lynch 2006, pp. 227–228; Langley 2009, p. 99; Arana 2013, pp. 370–372.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 436; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 272.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 435–436, 443; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 272; Lynch 2006, p. 228; Arana 2013, pp. 362, 372–373.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 437–438, 444–445; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 273–274; Lynch 2006, pp. 229–230, 232–233; Arana 2013, pp. 376–378, 388.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 274; Lynch 2006, p. 231.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 445–447; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 275–276; Lynch 2006, pp. 233–236; Langley 2009, p. 102; Arana 2013, pp. 390–391.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 276; Lynch 2006, p. 237; Arana 2013, p. 393.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 451–456; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 276–280; Lynch 2006, pp. 237–238, 240–241; Langley 2009, pp. 102–103; Arana 2013, pp. 393–394, 396–403.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 456–458; Lynch 2006, pp. 241–242; Langley 2009, p. 103; Arana 2013, pp. 403–408.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 460–464; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 277, 281–284; Lynch 2006, pp. 253–259; Arana 2013, pp. 411–415.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 286–287; Lynch 2006, pp. 262–266; Arana 2013, pp. 414–417, 424, 426.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 267; Arana 2013, pp. 425–426.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 472–476; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 287–289; Lynch 2006, pp. 270–272; Langley 2009, p. 105; Arana 2013, pp. 427–430, 432, 435.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 272–273; Lynch 2006, p. 273; Arana 2013, pp. 433–436.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 274; Arana 2013, p. 439.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 481–482; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, p. 290; Lynch 2006, pp. 274–275; Arana 2013, pp. 440, 449.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 483–484; Lynch 2006, p. 275; Arana 2013, pp. 445–446.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 485–487; Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 290–291; Lynch 2006, pp. 275–278; Arana 2013, pp. 448, 450–454.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 487; Lynch 2006, p. 278; Arana 2013, p. 456.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 295–301; Lynch 2006, pp. 300–301; Arana 2013, pp. 459–461.
- ^ Forero, Juan (23 February 2008). "Chávez, Assailed on Many Fronts, Is Riveted by 19th-Century Idol". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
- ^ "Bolívar and Chávez, a Worthy Comparison". Council on Hemispheric Affairs. 11 August 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
- ^ Lopez, Jaime (17 July 2010). "Exhuman el cadáver de Simón Bolívar para investigar si fue envenenado con arsénico" [Venezuela Exhumes Body of Simón Bolívar to Investigate If He Was Poisoned with Arsenic]. El Mundo (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
- ^ a b Phillips, Tom; Lopez, Virginia (26 July 2011). "Hugo Chávez Claims Simón Bolívar Was Murdered Not Backed by Science". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- Christian Science Monitor. Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- ^ "Venezuela Hero Simón Bolívar 'Death Tests' Inconclusive". BBC News. 26 July 2011. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- ^ Romero, Simon (3 August 2010). "Building a New History by Exhuming Bolívar". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- Time Magazine. Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- ^ Collier 2008, pp. 13, 15; Jaksic 2008, p. 84.
- ^ Collier 2008, p. 15.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 28–38.
- ^ Racine 2008, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 412–414; Lynch 2006, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Collier 2008, pp. 19, 27; Ewell 2008, pp. 38–39, 47; Racine 2008, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Masur 1969, pp. 181–182; Lynch 2006, pp. 78, 244–249.
- ^ Racine 2008, pp. 63–64; Safford 2008, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Collier 2008, p. 14.
- ^ Collier 2008, pp. 15–19, 25–27.
- ^ Collier 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Collier 2008, pp. 16, 18; Ewell 2008, pp. 38–40.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 44.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 285–286.
- ^ Masur 1969, p. 484; Lynch 2006, pp. 259–262, 276; Arana 2013, pp. 447, 450.
- ^ a b Conn 2020, p. 2.
- ^ Arana 2013, p. 460.
- ^ Conn 2020, p. 90.
- ^ Armillas-Tiseyra 2013, p. 1.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 3–8; Langley 2009, pp. ix–xi; Arana 2013, pp. 4–6.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 303–304; Arana 2013, p. 459.
- ^ Conn 2020, p. 13.
- ^ Grant, Will (5 July 2010). "Venezuela Honors Simón Bolívar's Lover Manuela Saenz". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
- ^ Lynch 2006, p. 302.
- ^ "International UNESCO/Simón Bolívar Prize". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- ^ Arana 2013, pp. 455, 458.
- ^ Lynch 2006, pp. 281–283; Langley 2009, pp. 44–45; Arana 2013, p. 458.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 305, 308; Lynch 2006, pp. 299–304; Langley 2009, pp. 109–110, 119–120; Arana 2013, pp. 460–463.
- ^ Langley 2009, p. 111.
- ^ Slatta & de Grummond 2003, pp. 305–306.
- ^ Gómez Pernia 2017, p. 206.
Bibliography
Biographies of Simón Bolívar
- ISBN 978-1-4391-1020-1.
- Langley, Lester D. (2009). Simón Bolívar: Venezuelan Rebel, American Revolutionary. ISBN 978-0-7425-6655-2.
- ISBN 978-0-300-12604-4.
- Masur, Gerhard (1969) [1948]. Simón Bolívar (Revised ed.). ISBN 978-0-8263-0131-4.
- Slatta, Richard W.; de Grummond, Jane Lucas (2003). Simón Bolívar's Quest for Glory. ISBN 978-1-58544-239-3.
Works by Simón Bolívar
- Brown, Matthew, ed. (2009). The Bolívarian Revolution: Simón Bolívar. ISBN 978-1-84467-381-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-514480-2.
General reference
- Armillas-Tiseyra, Magalí (Fall 2013). "Introduction: Dislocations". The Global South. 7 (2). S2CID 261249096.
- Bushnell, David; Langley, Lester D., eds. (2008). Simón Bolívar: Essays on the Life and Legacy of the Liberator. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5619-5.
- Collier, Simon. "Simón Bolívar as Political Thinker". In Bushnell & Langley (2008), pp. 13–34.
- Ewell, Judith. "Bolívar's Atlantic Word Diplomacy". In Bushnell & Langley (2008), pp. 35–54.
- Racine, Karen. "Simón Bolívar, Englishman: Elite Responsibility and Social Reform in Spanish American Independence". In Bushnell & Langley (2008), pp. 55–72.
- Jaksic, Iván. "Simón Bolívar and Andrés Bello: The Republican Ideal". In Bushnell & Langley (2008), pp. 75–98.
- Safford, Frank. "Bolívar as Triumphal State Maker and Despairing "Democrat"". In Bushnell & Langley (2008), pp. 99–120.
- Cardozo Uzcátegui, Alejandro (2011). "Don Gerónimo Enrique de Uztáriz y Tovar. II Marqués de Uztáriz. Protector y maestro de Simón Bolívar en Madrid". Presente y Pasado: Revista de Historia (in Spanish). 16 (31). from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
- Conn, Robert T. (2020). Bolívar's Afterlife in the Americas: Biography, Ideology, and the Public Sphere. ISBN 978-3-030-26217-4.
- McFarlane, Anthony (2014). War and Independence in Spanish America. ISBN 978-1-85728-783-7.
- Shanahan, Maureen G.; Reyes, Ana Maria, eds. (2017). Simón Bolívar: Travels and Transformations of a Cultural Icon. ISBN 978-0-8130-5449-0.
- Gómez Pernia, Alejandro E. "The Liberator's Sword: The Most Precious Relic of the Bolivarian Revolution". In Shanahan & Reyes (2017), pp. 215–30.
Further reading
- Bushnell, David. The Liberator, Simón Bolívar: Man and Image. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.
- Bushnell, David and Macaulay, Neill. The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (Second edition). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-19-508402-3
- Gómez Martínez, José Luis. "La encrucijada del cambio: Simón Bolívar entre dos paradigmas (una reflexión ante la encrucijada postindustrial)". Cuadernos Americanos 104 (2004): 11–32.
- Lacroix, Luis Perú de. Diario de Bucaramanga. Caracas: Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Comunicación y la Información, 2009.
- Lynch, John. Simón Bolívar and the Age of Revolution. London: University of London Institute of Latin American Studies, 1983. ISBN 978-0-901145-54-3
- New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. III. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1858.
- Racine, Karen. "Simón Bolívar and friends: Recent biographies of independence figures in Colombia and Venezuela" History Compass 18#3 (Feb 2020) https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12608
External links
- Archivo del Libertador (In Spanish) –12,000+ transcribed documents of the Libertador, from 1799 to 1830.