Interpretatio graeca

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Similarities between Roman, Greek and Etruscan mythologies
)
A Roman wall painting showing the Egyptian goddess Isis (seated right) welcoming the Greek heroine Io to Egypt

Interpretatio graeca (

ancient Greek religious concepts and practices, deities, and myths, equivalencies, and shared characteristics
.

The phrase may describe Greek efforts to explain others' beliefs and myths, as when

Romans
adapt Greek myths and iconography under the names of their own gods.

Interpretatio romana is comparative discourse in reference to

Imperial cult
.

Jan Assmann considers the polytheistic approach to internationalizing gods as a form of "intercultural translation":

The great achievement of polytheism is the articulation of a common semantic universe. ... The meaning of a deity is his or her specific character as it unfolded in myths, hymns, rites, and so on. This character makes a deity comparable to other deities with similar traits. The similarity of gods makes their names mutually translatable. ... The practice of translating the names of the gods created a concept of similarity and produced the idea or conviction that the gods are international.[4]

Pliny the Elder expressed the "translatability" of deities as "different names to different peoples" (nomina alia aliis gentibus).[5] This capacity made possible the religious syncretism of the Hellenistic era and the pre-Christian Roman Empire.

Examples

A Roman fresco from Herculaneum depicting Hercules (from Etruscan Hercle and ultimately Greek Heracles) and Achelous (patron deity of the Achelous River in Greece) from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century AD

Herakles and Ares
, but which he does not name.

Some pairs of Greek and Roman gods, such as Zeus and

Dyeus as the supreme sky god), and thus exhibit shared functions by nature. Others required more expansive theological and poetic efforts: though both Ares and Mars
are war gods, Ares was a relatively minor figure in Greek religious practice and deprecated by the poets, while Mars was a father of the Roman people and a central figure of archaic Roman religion.

Some deities dating to Rome's oldest religious stratum, such as

Terminus, had no Greek equivalent. Other Greek divine figures, most notably Apollo, were adopted directly into Roman culture, but underwent a distinctly Roman development, as when Augustus made Apollo one of his patron deities. In the early period, Etruscan culture played an intermediary role in transmitting Greek myth and religion to the Romans, as evidenced in the linguistic transformation of Greek Heracles to Etruscan Her[e]cle to Roman Hercules
.

Interpretatio romana

The phrase interpretatio romana was first used by the Imperial-era historian Tacitus in the Germania.[6] Tacitus reports that in a sacred grove of the Nahanarvali, "a priest adorned as a woman presides, but they commemorate gods who in Roman terms (interpretatione romana) are Castor and Pollux."[7] Elsewhere,[8] he identifies the principal god of the Germans as Mercury, perhaps referring to Wotan.[9]

Gilt bronze head from the cult statue of Sulis Minerva from the Temple at Bath

Some information about the deities of the ancient

continental Celts), who left no written literature other than inscriptions, is preserved by Greco-Roman sources under the names of Greek and Latin equivalents. A large number of Gaulish theonyms or cult titles are preserved, for instance, in association with Mars. As with some Greek and Roman divine counterparts, the perceived similarities between a Gallic and a Roman or Greek deity may reflect a common Indo-European origin.[10] Lugus was identified with Mercury, Nodens with Mars as healer and protector, Sulis with Minerva. In some cases, however, a Gallic deity is given an interpretatio romana by means of more than one god, varying among literary texts or inscriptions. Since the religions of the Greco-Roman world were not dogmatic, and polytheism lent itself to multiplicity, the concept of "deity" was often expansive, permitting multiple and even contradictory functions within a single divinity, and overlapping powers and functions among the diverse figures of each pantheon. These tendencies extended to cross-cultural identifications.[11]

In the Eastern empire, the Anatolian storm god with his double-headed axe became Jupiter Dolichenus, a favorite cult figure among soldiers.

Application to the Jewish religion

Roman scholars such as

Sabazius.[12]
In a similar vein, Plutarch gave an example of a symposium question "Who is the god of the Jews?", by which he meant: "What is his Greek name?" as we can deduce from the first speaker at the symposium, who maintained that the Jews worshiped Dionysus, and that the day of Sabbath was a festival of Sabazius. Lacunae prevent modern scholars from knowing the other speakers' thoughts.[13] Tacitus, on the topic of the Sabbath, claims that "others say that it is an observance in honour of Saturn, either from the primitive elements of their faith having been transmitted from the Idæi, who are said to have shared the flight of that God, and to have founded the race",[14] implying Saturn was the god of the Jews.

From the Roman point of view, it was natural to apply the above principle to the

Jewish God. However, the Jews, unlike other peoples living under Roman rule, rejected any such attempt out of hand, regarding such an identification as the worst of sacrilege. This complete divergence of views was one of the factors contributing to the frequent friction between the Jews and the Roman Empire; for example, the Emperor Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem under the name of Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter, precipitated the bloodbath of the Bar Kokhba revolt
.

Emperor Julian, the 4th century pagan emperor, remarked that "these Jews are in part god-fearing, seeing that they revere a god who is truly most powerful and most good and governs this world of sense, and, as I well know, is worshipped by us also under other names".[15] However, Julian specifies no "other names" under which the Jewish god was worshiped.

In late antiquity mysticism, the sun god Helios is sometimes equated to the Judeo-Christian God.[16]

Cross-cultural equivalencies

The following table is a list of

Phoenician, Zororastrian, and Celtic equivalencies via the interpretationes. These are not necessarily gods who share similar traits (as viewed by modern scholarship or readers, at least), and rarely do they share a common origin (for that, see comparative Indo-European pantheons
); they are simply gods of various cultures whom the Greeks or Romans identified (either explicitly in surviving works, or as supported by the analyses of modern scholars) with their own gods and heroes. This system is easily seen in the names of the days of the week, which were frequently translated according to the interpretio.

Greek Roman Etruscan Egyptian Phoenician Zororastrian Celtic Functions
Achilles Achle hero
Adonis Atunis Osiris
Tammuz
(Adōn)
agriculture; resurrection
Amphitrite
Salacia
Hatmehit sea goddess
Anemoi Venti Vayu-Vata winds
Aphrodite Venus Turan (Apru) Hathor / Isis[17] Astarte Anahita beauty; sex; love
Apollo Apulu Horus Resheph Mithra Belenus / Maponos / Borvo / Grannus light; prophecy; healing; plagues; archery; music; poets
Ares Mars Laran Anhur Verethragna Toutatis / Nodens / Neton war
Artemis Diana Artume Bastet[18] Kotharat Drvaspa hunting, the hunt; wilderness, wild animals; virginity, childbirth; Diana: lit. heavenly or divine
Asclepius
Vejove
Veiove Imhotep Eshmun healing
Athena Minerva[19] Menrva Neith[20] / Isis Anat Anahita Sulis / Belisama / Senuna / Coventina / Icovellauna / Sequana wisdom; war strategy; the arts and crafts; weaving
Atlas Aril Shu[21] holder of the celestial spheres
Atropos
Morta
Leinth Atropos: lit. inflexible; death
Boreas
Aquilo
Andas North Wind or Devouring One
Castor and Polydeuces (Dioscuri) Castor and Pollux (Gemini) Castur and Pultuce (Tinas cliniar) twins
Charites Graces grace; splendor; festivity; charity
Charon
Charun Aqen fierce, flashing, feverish gaze (eyes)
Chloris Flora Chloris: lit. greenish-yellow, pale green, pale, pallid, fresh; Flora: lit. flower
Clotho Nona spinning; thread
Cronus Saturn Satre Khnum El (Elus) Time, generation, dissolution, agriculture
Cybele
Magna Mater
Magna Mater: lit. Great Mother
Demeter
Ceres
Zerene Isis[22] Ashi grains, agricultural fertility; Demeter: lit. Earth Mother
Dionysus Liber / Bacchus Fufluns Osiris[23] Cernunnos wine and winemaking; revelry; ecstasy; Liber: lit. the free one
Enyo Bellona Enie Sekhmet war
Eos Aurora / Matuta Thesan Tefnut dawn
Erinyes Dirae Furies
Eris Discordia Eris Anat Shahar strife
Eros
Cupid (Amor) Erus sexual love
Euterpe Euturpa / Euterpe "she who delights"; muse of music (especially flute music) and song; later, also of lyric poetry
Eurus
Vulturnus
East Wind
Gaia
Terra / Tellus
Cel
Geb Zam the earth
Hades
Orcus
Aita Anubis / Osiris Mot
Angra Mainyu
the underworld. Hades: lit. the unseen
Hebe Juventas Renpet youth
Hecate Trivia Heqet
Matronae
will; Hecate: trans. she who has power far off [24]
Helios Sol Invictus / Sol Indiges Usil Ra[25] Shamash (Utu) Mithra sun
Hephaestus Vulcan
Sethlans
Ptah Kothar-wa-Khasis[26] Atar
Gobannos
metalwork, forges; fire, lava
Hera Juno Uni Mut / Hathor Armaiti marriage, family
Heracles Hercules Hercle Heryshaf, Shu[27] Melqart Rostam Ogmios Heracles: lit. glory/fame of Hera
Hermes Mercury Turms Anubis, Thoth Taautus
Shamash
Lugus / Viducus transitions; boundaries; thieves; travelers; commerce; Hermes: poss. "interpreter"; Mercurius: related to Latin "merx" (merchandise), "mercari" (to trade), and "merces" (wages)
Hesperus Vesper Shalim evening, supper, evening star, west[28]
Hestia Vesta Anuket hearth, fireplace, domesticity
Hygeia
Salus Sirona health; cleanliness
Ilithyia
Lucina Ilithiia
Tawaret
childbirth, midwifery
Irene
Pax
peace
Iris Arcus / Iris Nut rainbow
Janus
Culsans beginnings; transitions; motion; doorways
Lachesis
Decima Lachesis: lit. disposer of lots; luck
Leto
Latona
Letun Demureness; mothers
Maia Rosmerta growth
Moirai (Moerae) Fates or Parcae Apportioners
Muses Camenae Music; inspiration
Rhamnusia
Invidia "retribution"
Nike Victoria Meanpe victory
Notus Auster South Wind
Odysseus Ulysses or Ulixes Uthste hero
Palaemon Portunus keys, doors; ports, harbors
Pan
Faunus Min, Khem[29] nature, the wild
Persephone Proserpina Persipnei poss. "to emerge"
Phaon Phaun / Faun / Phamu mortal boatman given youth and beauty by Aphrodite
Pheme Fama fame; rumor
Phosphoros Lucifer
Attar
lit. light bearer
Poseidon Neptune Nethuns Yam Apam Napat sea; water; horses; earthquakes
Priapus Mutunus Tutunus fertility; livestock; gardens; male genitalia
Prometheus Prumathe forethought
Rhea
Magna Mater
(see Cybele above)
Nut Asherah Rhea: lit. flowing. Ops: lit. wealth, abundance, resources.
Selene Luna Losna Isis, Thoth, Khonsu Yarikh Mah moon
Tiur
Silenos Silvanus Selvans Sucellus Silvanus: lit. of the woods
Thallo
Thalna blossoms
Thanatos Mors Leinth Anubis Mot death
Charun
Themis Justitia
Ma'at
law of nature
Tyche
Fortuna
Nortia Gad luck, fortune
Typhon Set / Apep "whirlwinds, storms, chaos, darkness"
Uranus Caelus Nut El Asman sky, heavens
Vertumnus Voltumna Baal the seasons; change
Zephyr Favonius West Wind; Favonius: lit. favorable
Zeus Jupiter or Jove[30] Tinia Amun[31] Hadad Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd) Taranis weather, storms, lightning,
Sky Father

In art

Examples of deities depicted in syncretic compositions by means of interpretatio graeca or romana:

  • Jupiter Ammon (terracotta of Hellenistic style, 1st century AD)
    Jupiter Ammon (terracotta of Hellenistic style, 1st century AD)
  • Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a Genius (1st century BC – 1st century AD)
    Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a Genius (1st century BC – 1st century AD)
  • Isis holding sistrum and oinochoe (Roman marble, reign of Hadrian)
    Isis holding
    oinochoe (Roman marble, reign of Hadrian
    )
  • Isis, Serapis, the child Harpocrates and Dionysos (relief from Roman Africa, late 2nd century AD)
    Isis,
    Roman Africa
    , late 2nd century AD)
  • Worshipper before Zeus–Serapis–Ohrmazd (Bactria, 3rd century AD)
    Worshipper before Zeus–Serapis–
    Ohrmazd
    (Bactria, 3rd century AD)

See also

References

  1. .
  2. .
  3. ^ Characterized as "discourse" by Mark S. Smith, God in Translation: Deities in Cross-Cultural Discourse in the Biblical World (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2008, 2010), p. 246.
  4. ^ Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 44–54 (quotation p. 45), as cited by Smith, God in Translation, p. 39.
  5. ^ Pliny, Natural History 2.5.15.
  6. ^ Tacitus, Germania 43.
  7. ^ "Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu, sed deos interpretatione romana Castorem Pollucemque memorant."
  8. ^ Tacitus, Germania 9.
  9. . Retrieved 2013-01-24.
  10. ^ John T. Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.
  11. ^ Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture, pp. 974–975; Assmann, Moses the Egyptian, p. 45.
  12. ^ (Valerius Maximus), epitome of Nine Books of Memorable Deeds and Sayings, i. 3, 2, see EXEMPLUM 3. [Par.]
  13. ^ Plutarch. Symposiacs, iv, 6.
  14. ^ Tacitus, Histories 5.4
  15. ^ Julian, Letter XX to Theodorus, translated by Wilmer Cave Wright (1913)
  16. ^ Eleni Pachoumi, The Religious and Philosophical Assimilation of Helios in the Greek Papyri
  17. .
  18. .
  19. .
  20. .
  21. . Retrieved 6 October 2014.
  22. .
  23. .
  24. ^ "Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, ἕκα^τος". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
  25. .
  26. ^ "Kothar – Semitic Deity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  27. .
  28. ^ Trevor, George (1863). Ancient Egypt: Its Antiquities, Religion, and History, to the Close of the Old Testament Period. Religious Tract Society.
  29. .
  30. .

Further reading