Sinhalese–Portuguese conflicts
Sinhalese–Portuguese conflicts | ||||||||
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Part of the Crisis of the Sixteenth Century | ||||||||
The Portuguese army at Kandy during the campaign of Danture, by Philippus Baldaeus | ||||||||
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Belligerents | ||||||||
Vanni chieftains |
Portuguese Empire Kingdom of Kotte |
From 1638: Dutch East India Company | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | ||||||||
Vimaladharmasuriya I Erik GrubbeSenarat Rajasimha II Cankili I Puviraja Pandaram Cankili II Roland Crappé (WIA) |
Adam Westerwold Willem Jacobszoon Coster Jan Thyszoon Payart Joan Maetsuycker Jacob van Kittensteyn Adriaan van der Meyden |
Sinhalese–Portuguese conflicts refers to the series of armed engagements that took place from 1518 to 1658 in
The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505, initially as merchants for the lucrative
In 1592 the Portuguese placed a client ruler on the throne of the
The uneasy peace was eventually broken by the intervention of the Dutch East India Company in 1638, who sought to exploit the situation to take over Portuguese possessions as part of the Dutch–Portuguese War. The Dutch formed an alliance with Kandy; together they won several battles against the Portuguese, most notably the siege of Galle in 1640. However, the Dutch-Kandyan alliance broke down and the three remaining powers fought each other in triangular warfare for a time. The Dutch and Kandyans renewed their alliance in 1649 to drive the Portuguese from the island. The Portuguese stronghold at Colombo was conquered in 1656, but once this was done the Dutch immediately betrayed their Kandayn allies, taking over the Portuguese possessions.
By the end of the war in 1658 all Portuguese forces had been expelled from the island. The Kingdom of Kandy was the only surviving indigenous polity, ruling almost half of Sri Lanka.[5] The Dutch were left in control of the major population centres.
Background
The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505
Early stages (1518–1521)
In 1518, the Governor of Portuguese India (Lopo Soares de Albergaria) obtained authorization from King Parakramabahu VIII of Kotte to build a trading post in Colombo, protected by a palisade and a wall of rammed earth, to be erected at the edge of the port. A treaty was signed between Kotte and Portugal, with terms including: Parakramabahu officially declared himself a vassal of the Portuguese king Manuel I, offered a tribute of 10 elephants, 20 ruby rings and 400 cinnamon bars, and in exchange Portugal would provide military support for Kotte.[11]
Siege of Colombo (1520)
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The construction of the fort sparked a riot in Colombo, instigated by Muslim merchants and Buddhist monks.[12] The construction site was attacked by Sinhalese, armed with bows and a few cannons – originally offered by the Muslim merchants to Parakramabahu – but the mob was dispersed by the much more powerful bombardment of the Portuguese ships anchored in the harbour.[13] Parakramabahu intervened to put an end to the dispute, supporting the Portuguese.[13]
Siege of Colombo (1521)
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Parakramabahu died of
Partition of Kotte
In 1521, the three sons of Vijayabahu rebelled and killed him. The sons (
The Portuguese initially focused on securing their fort in Colombo and the cinnamon trade that took place there. Bhuvanekabahu of Kotte renewed the alliance that had been agreed by Parakramabahu, so the Portuguese also helped to defend Kotte against attacks from Sitawaka.[16] Portuguese influence over Kotte grew with the military aid they provided.[8]
Defense of Kotte against Sitawaka (1521-1588)
The first invasion of Kotte by Mayadunne was repulsed by a Bhunvanekabahu, assisted by forces despatched by the Portuguese Viceroy of Goa. Another attempt at seizing Kotte in 1537 failed when Mayadunne's forces were defeated by forces under the command of the Portuguese captain-major in Colombo, Afonso de Souza; a fleet sent from Calicut to assist was on this occasion defeated by the Portuguese at Vedalai. A truce was negotiated between Sitawaka and Kotte in the aftermath of the conflict, and Mayadunne turned his attention south to the kingdom of Raigama, which he annexed following the death of Raigam Bandara (Pararajasinha) in 1538.
With Raigam Bandara's death in 1538 Mayadunne annexed the principality of Raigama and invaded Kotte a third time. Buvanekabahu VII defeated Mayadunne's invading forces with the help of the Portuguese, eventually paving the way to an uneasy peace. The Portuguese wanted to conduct a full-scale offensive against Sitawaka and neutralize King Mayadunne, but King Bhuvanekabahu VII did not support their cause; he only wanted Portuguese help for defensive purposes.
Two more invasions of Kotte followed in the next five years. The fourth invasion, beginning in 1539, failed following resistance organised by the new Portuguese captain-major in Colombo, Miguel Ferreira. Calicut yet again provided troops and weaponry to Sitawaka; however, following defeat, Kulhenamarikkar and Pachimarikkar, two of the Zamorin's generals, were handed over to the Portuguese and the alliance between Calicut and Sitawaka ended. News in 1543 that Bhuvanekabahu had named his grandson
Portuguese involvement in the internal politics of Kotte increased with the arrival in 1550 of viceroy Afonso de Noronha and a contingent of some 500 Portuguese soldiers. The Portuguese sacked Sitawaka later that year. Accounts indicate that Mayadunne had adopted a policy of simply evacuating his capital and retreating into the surrounding terrain when the Portuguese approached. Once the Portuguese had left, the king's forces would harassed them along the route down to the Kelani river.[17]
Siege of Kotte
In 1551 Bhuvanekabahu was killed by a shot fired by a Portuguese soldier, which was claimed to be an accidental discharge of the weapon.[18][19] His young grandson, Dharmapala of Kotte, was established on the Kotte throne under the protection of the Portuguese.
After consulting with his council,[20] Mayadunne proclaimed himself heir to the throne of Kotte and appealed to the subjects of Kotte to join his cause. Many chieftains and their followers answered and deserted to Sitawaka. Mayadunne taking the initiative rallied his forces to invade the Kingdom of Kotte.[21] This sparked a series of new campaigns between the Kingdom of Sitawaka, the Kingdom of Kandy and the Portuguese.[22]
The Siege of Kotte from November 1557 to November 1558 involved a 50,000 strong
Battle of Mulleriyawa
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The Battle of Mulleriyawa in 1559 was one of the most decisive battles in Sri Lankan history. With this victory Sitawaka emerged as a military power able to challenge Portuguese expansion.
Further campaigns involving Sitawaka
Pressing their advantage, Mayadunne and Tikiri Bandara launched a two-pronged attack on Kotte in 1564, laying siege to both Kotte and Colombo. Portuguese forces were forced to retreat from Kotte with Dharmapala, leaving Sitawaka in control of much of the kingdom. Major Sitawakan garrisons were established at Wattala, Nagalagama and Mapane.
A thin coastal strip, running from Negombo to Galle and including the fort in Colombo, was kept provisioned from the sea by Portuguese ships and remained in Portuguese hands. Strategically, this enabled them to harass and wage attritionary campaigns against the kingdom, the most notable being the invasion of 1574 which saw Negombo, Kalutara and Beruwala plundered, Sitawakan garrisons at Nagalagama and Mapane expelled, and the districts of Weligama and Chilaw ravaged.
Siege of Colombo (1587–1588)
Having conquered Kandy, King
Knowing of Colombo's defences, which included a lagoon serving as a moat by its southern side, Rajasinha began the siege by having entrenchments dug around the walls and the lagoon drained, which took a month. With the digging complete, Rajasinha rallied his entire army outside Colombo in a display of force, shouting war-cries to intimidate the besieged. Undaunted, Brito ordered a sally against the troops closest to the city, throwing them into great confusion.[24]
On the night of 3 August, the Rajasinha ordered the first mass assault. Thousands of Sinhalese attempted to scale Colombo's earthen walls, while
Over the following months Rajasinha attempted three more assaults on Colombo, along with attempts to undermine the walls, while the Portuguese conducted sorties against Sinhalese positions. With the end of the monsoon, the first Portuguese reinforcements from Goa arrived on 11 September. Further ships carrying reinforcements arrived on 4 October, 23 October, 4 November, and 15 February. Finally, on 18 February a large fleet of eighteen galleys commanded by Manuel de Sousa Coutinho arrived, after raiding Sitawakan shores in northwestern Sri Lanka. The fleet sailed in battle formation and sounded its guns; the Portuguese defenders greeted it by ringing their church bells and firing a general salvo from the fortress' cannon.[26]
With the arrival of the reinforcements, there were now 2,000 Portuguese soldiers inside the fortress, in addition to the lascarins and civilian defenders. Rajasinha realised that the opportunity to take Colombo had been lost and lifted the siege shortly afterwards. Over the eight-month campaign, the Sinhalese had lost 5,000 men.[27]
Portuguese campaigns against Jaffna, Sitawaka and Kandy
In 1588 Kandy rebelled against its new Sitawaka rulers. However, the heirs of the Kandyan royal family had fallen under Portuguese influence and were held in Colombo. In 1592 the Portuguese intervened in Kandy, placing their protégé
Second Portuguese campaign against Jaffna
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Meanwhile, the
Portuguese conquest of Sitawaka
In 1593 Sitawaka forces attempted to re-take Kandy, but were repulsed and their king Rajasinha I died of disease contracted during the fighting. One of the rival claimants to his throne, Jayavira Bandara Mudali, defected to Kotte, and with his support and guidance, the Portuguese captain-major of Ceylon Pedro Homem Pereira set out against Sitawaka with a force of 950 Portuguese and 6000 Sinhalese.[28] The forces of Sitawaka were thrice defeated, first at the Kaduwara fort, then at the Rakgahawatta and Malwana forts using combined land and river operations, and finally at Gurubewira, the Sitawaka fort there being stormed at the end of a bloody struggle.[28] Eventually, the Portuguese marched on the city of Sitawaka and plundered it, obtaining spoils worth 4 million xerafins.[28] The kingdom of Sitawaka submitted thereafter.[28]
Campaign of Danture (1594)
In 1594 the Portuguese tried again to put their preferred candidate on the throne of Kandy as a
The Portuguese stormed the pass at
Vimaladharmasuriya's forces engaged in
The death of Jayavira led many of the Lascarins to desert, along with all of the Badaga mercenaries. Less than a thousand native allies were left with the Portuguese forces, who were now massively outnumbered, lacking supplies, and faced a mass rebellion. The Portuguese attempted to retreat from Kandy to the fort at Balana. Losses to guerilla warfare and further Lascarin desertions reduced their forces to about 360 Portuguese and an equal number of Lascarins by the time they reached Danture. In contrast, defections and troops arriving from other parts of the kingdom had swelled Vimaladharmasuriya's forces to about 20,000 men.
At Danture, the Portuguese forces were attacked as they retreated. The organised columns disintegrated in the forest and most were wiped out. Sousa surrendered with the remaining 93 European troops. In a departure from usual Sinhalese warfare, the prisoners were tortured and mutilated. Sousa died of the wounds he sustained during the fighting. With the exception of a patrol sent back to the lowlands during the early part of the campaign, only three Portuguese soldiers escaped back to Colombo.
Vimaladharmasuriya solidified his control over Kandy by marrying Dona Catarina. In an attempt to prevent further Portuguese incursions he built new fortifications in the Balana pass.
After Danture (1594-1616)
With the death of Pedro Lopes de Sousa at Danture, Dom Jerónimo de Azevedo succeeded him as Captain-General of Ceylon, and despite the losses in the battle, Kandy was unable to advance into the lowlands as the Portuguese forts and garrisons remained intact.[29]
Dom Jerónimo proceeded to reform Kotte's provincial administration, dividing it into four provinces, or disavas, each administered by the eponymous disava, with military and judicial powers. The tax system was also reformed and the old system of tributes replaced with fixed mandatory payments. The original military system of castes and levies however, remained organized under the local mudaliar commanders, who assisted the Portuguese troops. Dom Jerónimo also encouraged missionary work by the Jesuits, Augustinians and Dominicans in addition to the Franciscans.[30]
Nevertheless, the defeat at Danture sparked a number of uprisings in Kotte which Dom Jerónimo had to defeat before he could move on Kandy. He considered the defeat of Kandy an utmost priority to secure Sri Lanka and secured Kotte first with the construction of fortified encampments in
By 1603, Kotte was firmly secured and Dom Jerónimo led his troops into Kandy through the mountain pass, where he seized the Kandian fort at Balana and proceeded towards the city of Kandy itself. However, the kingdom could not be subjugated then due to a rebellion among the Lascarins, and was forced to return to Colombo.[31]
Unable to capture Kandy, Dom Jerónimo adopted a policy of first weakening Kandy through devastating raid warfare by land, twice every year, at harvest time, resorting to light contingents of troops, while blockading the eastern Kandian ports of Trincomalee and Batticaloa by sea, between 1604 and 1612 with considerable success. This coincided with a succession crisis in Kandy after the death of King Vimaladharmasuryia in 1604, that was only solved months later with the succession of his cousin Senarat to the throne.[31]
Senarat proved to be an unpopular ruler and unable to prevent the Portuguese from causing great devastation upon Kandian villages and crops. In 1612, Dom Jerónimo was appointed as the next viceroy of Portuguese India and was succeeded in Sri Lanka by
Rebellions, peace treaty and conquest of Jaffna (1616–1621)
Uprisings in Portuguese territory
The taxes imposed by the Portuguese, and the desecration of Buddhist temples by missionaries caused great discontent among the Sinhalese peasantry and in late 1616 an uprising broke out in Sabaragamuwa. Disava Filipe de Oliveira's forces camped in the Seven Korales were dispatched south, but in his absence, in December 1616 a much greater revolt broke out in eastern Seven Korales, led by a disgraced grain measurer who claimed to be the grandson of Rajasinha, late prince Nikapitiya Bendara, dead since 1611. Senarat immediately took the opportunity to support Nikapitiya with a force of 2000 men commanded by the former rebel leader Kangara Aratchi, and the Prince of Uva, Kuruvita Rala, to march his forces southwards into Matara and Sabaragamuwa. Under these conditions, the Portuguese were overwhelmed: part of Sabaragmuwa and Matara were overrun while a considerable portion of the Seven Korales fell to Nikapitiya's rebellion.[33]
Rebellion in Kandy
Despite initial cordiality, Senarat quickly grew distrustful of Nikapitiyas' success and attitude towards Kandy. Fearing a future rival, he withdrew all his aid and ordered Kuruvita Rala to suspend operations while he attempted to gain a truce with the Portuguese. This in turn caused Kuruvita Rala, a native from Kotte, to rebel in indignation against Senarat, choosing instead to ally with Nikapityia, march against his former ruler, and invite Mayadunne of Denawaka exiled in India to become King of Kandy instead (since his lowly caste disallowed him from crowning himself king). In this regard, C.R. de Silva considers Kuruvita Rala to have been "the true Sinhalese patriot, for it was he who put national above dynastic interests".[34]
Kuruvita Rala, ruling much of southern Sri Lanka including the port of Batticaloa, now posed a much graver threat to Senarat than Nikapitiya. Thus, after recapturing the Balana fort from the Portuguese turned to them for a treaty and an alliance, but only when he released all the Portuguese prisoners was captain-general Dom Nuno Álvares Pereira convinced that Senarat's proposal was genuine.[35]
The Luso-Kandian treaty
By this sudden turn of events, on August 17 an agreement between the Portuguese and Kandy was reached and a treaty put into effect. In negotiating with the Portuguese, Senarat proved rather capable, refusing most of Portuguese demands but still had to formally pledge vassalage to the King of Portugal, agree not interfere in missionary work in Kandy (Senarat even entrusted his children to be educated by Franciscans), offer several noblemen as hostages in Colombo and pay two large elephants a year as a token tribute. The Portuguese on their part agreed to a formal alliance and recognized Senerat as the rightful King of Kandy.[36]
With the coming of favourable winds in March 1617, important Portuguese reinforcements had arrived in Colombo. In June, developments in Jaffna favoured the Portuguese as Cankili I usurped the throne through a coup and in exchange for Portuguese recognition, agreed to prevent supplies and weapons from reaching the rebels from there. Between July and September the Portuguese were able to recapture the Seven Korales, and Nikapitiya fled to the jungles inhabited by the Vanni in northeastern Sri Lanka, never to be seen again.[37]
Portuguese annexation of Jaffna
Although the Portuguese confirmed Cankili as the ruler of Jaffna, Cankilis' brutal murder of political rivals made him an unpopular ruler, and incapable of preventing dissatisfaction especially from the rising number of native Christians of the Kingdom. In August 1618, a rebellion instigated by Christian mudaliars Dom Pedro and Dom Luiz and aided by local Portuguese casados evicted Cankili from the throne, but was eventually suppressed with the assistance of 5000 men of the Hindu
Upon reaching Mannar, Dom Pedro sailed away, and Oliveira proceeded towards Jaffna. Once there, he demanded the payment of due tributes but as negotiations with Cankili failed, in June the Portuguese-Sinhalese forces of Filipe de Oliveira marched on the capital
Developments in southern Sri Lanka
Elsewhere, in early 1620 Senarat achieved another truce – with Mayadunne and Kuruvita Rala – by promising them the throne of Kotte instead. Only by June 1620 did the Portuguese captain-general Dom Constantino de Sá de Noronha manage to recapture the southern lowlands, for Kuruvita Rala was a skilled and popular commander and knew the territory well.[42] A month later, Kuruvita Rala was himself ambushed and killed by the disava[check spelling] of Matara Dom Costantino Barreto (a Christian Sinhalese) in Panama, southeastern Sri Lanka. The departure of Mayadunne of Denawaka back to India in March 1621 brought the end of the rebellion in Kandy, and peace between the Portuguese and Kandy.[43]
Danish negotiations and involvement
The second European power to establish a foothold on Sri Lanka were the Danes. Arriving in January 1619 as the first Danish representative, Roland Crappé raided Jaffna and
Dutch involvement (1638–1658)
The kingdoms of Spain and Portugal had been in
The rival
The combined VOC and Kandyan forces gradually wore down the Portuguese forces, pushing them out of their strongholds across the island. Batticaloa on the East coast fell to Dutch forces in 1639, then Negombo on the West coast in 1640. Galle was captured after a siege in 1640, providing the Dutch with a port and naval base. However the Kandyans became suspicious of their new allies, correctly believing that the VOC goal was not just to remove the Portuguese from Sri Lanka, but to replace them as the colonial power. The alliance fell apart after a ceasefire was agreed between Dutch and Portuguese forces at some point between 1641 and 1645.
Kandyan forces engaged in skirmishing with both Dutch and Portuguese forces over the following years, but were unable to make inroads. The VOC and Kandy returned to negotiations and reformed their alliance in 1649, albeit on different terms. Meanwhile, the Iberian Union had ended in 1640, depriving the Portuguese colonies of Spanish support. The Peace of Münster in 1648 had ended the Dutch war with Spain (but not Portugal). These developments together acted to free up Dutch forces from other conflicts, allowing them to concentrate on their attacks on Portuguese colonies.
The VOC-Kandy alliance went on the offensive in Sri Lanka from 1652. Whilst Kandy controlled the interior of the island, it was landlocked and the Dutch fleet were able to dominate the coast. Two naval actions were fought between the Dutch and Portuguese on 23 March near Colombo and 2 May 1654 near Goa; the Portuguese won the first battle but lost their entire Indian subcontinent fleet in the second. The Dutch placed the main Portuguese base of Colombo under siege in 1655. Rajasingha no longer trusted the Dutch and insisted that Colombo be ceded to Kandy as soon as it fell. However, when the city finally fell in 1656, the Dutch immediately closed the gates against their ally.
Faced with a complete breakdown in relations with the Dutch, the Kandyan's broke off the alliance and pillaged the area around Colombo. They then retreated back inland and resumed their war with the Dutch, which would continue intermittently for the next century.
The last Portuguese forces were expelled from Sri Lanka entirely in 1658. The VOC was left in control of Colombo and much of the surrounding coastline, forming Dutch Ceylon.
Aftermath
By the end of the war, the Portuguese had lost all of their possessions in Sri Lanka along with their trading rights. Portuguese Ceylon ceased to exist.
The Dutch were left in control of numerous ports and fortifications along the coastline, along with the major population centres of Colombo and Galle. Their possessions on the island were organised into the colony of Dutch Ceylon. Over the following century the colony gradually expanded its holdings in Sri Lanka, and engaged in sporadic warfare with Kandy. Eventually the Kew Letters of 1795 led to the transfer of the Dutch possessions on the island to the British in 1796, forming British Ceylon.
The Kingdom of Kandy retreated to the highlands in the interior and east of the island. They continued to resist European influence on Sri Lanka, engaging in skirmishing and guerilla warfare without making significant inroads into the lowlands. Kandy maintained its independence until 1815 when it ceded its power to the British.
See also
- List of captains of Portuguese Ceylon
- List of captain-majors of Portuguese Ceylon
- List of captain-generals of Portuguese Ceylon
- Forts in Sri Lanka
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ Rindom, Jan (1995). OSTINDISK KOMPAGNI 1616-50 (PDF) (in Danish). DET KONGELIGE BIBLIOTEK. p. 24.
- ISBN 9781884964046.
- ^ a b de Silva 2005, p. 161.
- ^ de Silva 1981, p. 114.
- ^ de Silva 2005, p. 162.
- ^ S.G. Perera p. 8.
- ^ S.G. Perera p. 11.
- ^ a b Gaston Perera p. 144.
- ^ a b Gaston Perera p. 145.
- ^ Gaston Perera pp. 145–146.
- ^ Pieris, Paul E.: Ceylon: The Portuguese Era, Being the History of the Island for the Period 1505-1658, Volumes 1, The Ceylon Historical Journal Monograph Series Volume Six, Tisara Prakasakaya Publishers Ltd., 1992, p. 55
- ^ Pieris, 1992, p. 52
- ^ a b Pieris, 1992, p. 53
- ^ Rajavaliya p. 77.
- ^ S.G. Perera p 20.
- ^ S.G. Perera pp. 18–23.
- ^ Roland Raven-Hart,Ceylon: A History in Stone,1964
- ^ Paul E. Peiris pp. 115–116.
- ^ Rajavaliya p. 79.
- ISBN 81-206-0765-1
- ^ Father S.G. Perera. A history of Ceylon for schools – The Portuguese and Dutch period. The associated newspapers of ceylon Ltd:Sri Lanka; 1942. p 44.
- ^ Queyroz pp. 326–341.
- ^ Saturnino Monteiro (2011) Portuguese Sea Battles – Volume IV – 1580–1603 p. 195
- ^ Monteiro 2011, p. 197
- ^ Monteiro 2011, p. 198
- ^ Monteiro 2011, p. 202
- ^ Monteiro 2011, p. 203
- ^ a b c d Pieris, Paul E.: Ceylon: The Portuguese Era, Being the History of the Island for the Period 1505-1658, Volume I, The Ceylon Historical Journal Monograph Series Volume Six, Tisara Prakasakaya Publishers Ltd., 1992, pp. 273-274
- ^ Chandra Richard De Silva (1972) The Portuguese in Ceylon 1617–1638 H. W. Cave & Company, Colombo
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 12
- ^ a b c C. R. de Silva (1972) p. 13
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 15
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, pg. 22-23
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, pp. 25–26
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 27
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, pp. 32–34
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 31
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 42
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 44
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 46
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 47
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 36
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 54
- ^ Kumar, Lalit (2021). Danish East India Company: Establishment and Company's business activities in India and Southeast Asia 1620-1650 (PDF). Journal of Technology and Management. p. 15.
- ^ "Christian IV drømte om guld og krydderier fra Indien: Sådan blev Tranquebar en dansk koloni". videnskab.dk (in Danish). 2023-06-14. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
- ^ C. R. de Silva 1972, pg. 53-54
- ^ Olsen, op. cit. (n. 274) pp. 42-79
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-520-04320-6.
- ISBN 9789558095928.
- B. Gunasekara, The Rajavaliya. AES reprint. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1995. ISBN 81-206-1029-6
- C. Gaston Perera, Kandy Fights the Portuguese – A Military History of Kandyan Resistance. Vijithayapa Publications: Sri Lanka, June 2007. ISBN 978-955-1266-77-6
- Paul E. Peiris, Ceylon the Portuguese Era: Being a History of the Island for the Period, 1505–1658, Volume 2. Tisara Publishers: Sri Lanka, 1992. (Link). OCLC 12552979.
- da Silva, O. M. (1990). Fidalgos in the kingdom of Kotte, Sri Lanka, 1505–1656: the Portuguese in Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Harwoods Publishers.
- S.G. Perera, A History of Ceylon For Schools – The Portuguese and Dutch period. The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon: Sri Lanka, 1942. (Link). OCLC 10531673.
- Winius, George D. (1971). The fatal history of Portuguese Ceylon; transition to Dutch rule. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-29510-0.
- Chandra Richard De Silva (1972) The Portuguese in Ceylon 1617–1638 H. W. Cave & Company, Colombo